Contents
Career Development
Introduction
You (with the help of others) are the best person to develop yourself. However, to obtain an objective picture of your skills and knowledge may take a little time. Included in this section are several questionnaires which will help you make an assessment of your current competences. This may be a new concept to you but it is important that you understand its meaning and its implications for you as a manager. At the end of the session you should have begun to be aware of your development needs and started to prepare items for your development plan.
You will do this by diagnosing what needs to be done, setting goals covering your skills and knowledge and then deciding how these should be evaluated. This latter point is the most crucial. How will you know when you have achieved a goal?
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to:
Activities
You and Your Job
What parts of your job do you really like? Do you think that you are in the right job? How can you manage yourself better? These are just some of the questions we shall look at to encourage you to think actively about your approach to work.
Understanding why it is that you consciously avoid certain parts of your job, or find opportunities to undertake other aspects of the work which you prefer, can help you to "manage" yourself more effectively. Very often we find some aspects of our job really exhilarating and we become very enthusiastic about that type of work. At other times we become lethargic and find particular aspects of the job really "boring". Based on the concepts of Team Management Systems developed by Charles Margerison and Dick McCann, this session will help you draw up plans to operate better in yourself and with others in a more effective and efficient manner.
Personal Profile
Each of us has a self image which influences the way we work and relate to people. An opportunity will be provided to assess your own approach to work and how it compares to others.
Each day at work we all make assessments of each other and use this in our interpersonal dealings. As a basis for the attention we shall give to "work preferences" in Session Seven, take a few moments to describe how you see yourself in the work situation.
Objectives
Most people have plenty of experiences, but often they do not learn as fully from them as they could.
Associates are advised to keep and use the Log Book in order to encourage them to identify useful learning experiences and develop their learning processes, and to undertake actions as a result. The final purpose is to help the manager be more effective.
Guidance on completing the Log Book
Such events may occur within the formal context of the programme or outside it. The process of collecting information from colleagues for a session or for written assignments may be equalled by similar experiences at your place of work. In the same way, your record of interesting learning from IMC Programme discussions should be paralleled by your experience from other projects or group discussions. This integration of learning both ''from the IMC Programme'' and from normal work experience is a significant objective of the Learning Log.
You may have learned something in terms of content, ''the meeting demonstrated the kind of benefits sought by that customer,'' or process, ''I saw how the Chairman handled some difficult interventions. He made everyone happy by...''
Try to make your review explicit against your action plan, rather than general. For example, instead of simply noting that you did not learn from a particular experience, try and analyse why (perhaps by looking at your own behaviour, not that of others).
Those of you with a high Activist and low Reflector score will probably find the disciplines approach outlined here uncomfortable, and perhaps initially unrewarding. Have patience and persevere - a number of high Activists have said that the process was in the end very important for them.
Note that the process suggested here takes you through the Learning Cycle to which you were introduced in the Start-Up.
Fundamentally learning from experience is a four stage process:
Reading:
A Review of Action Learning by Alan Mumford. ANBAR REF. AIS 028
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV 0
Style: Academic
Title: We do: therefore, we learn
Author(s): E.Gordon Sorohan
Journal: Training & Development
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Oct 93 (47/10)
Page: 47 (7 pages)
Abstract: Reviews current US research on learning in the workplace and the complex interplay among individual, group and organisational learning; examines its implications for managers, particularly in situations where problem-solving and decision making are diffused among highly-skilled front-line workers, thus blurring hierarchical and functional distinctions. Points to the impact on training and education of managerial and professional workers, and identifies action learning, which gives learners real business problems to solve in the actual workplace, as having a valuable contribution to make. Stresses that companies should define clearly what they want to accomplish, weave learning into the work and tailor instruction specifically to learners' needs - drawing a comparison with the traditional craft apprenticeship model.
Subject: ORGANISATIONAL LEARNING, ACTION LEARNING
Self Development
Introduction
You may be already very interested in taking responsibility for yourself. You may already be doing this. Alternatively, you may not be used to doing it, or be more used to an organisation doing it for you. This opening session is therefore to explain the rationale of self-development, develop your attitude to it, and get you started on the track you must pursue. Although it is an Introduction to the subject, you might find that some needs or actions arise from it. Keep a record of them.
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to:
Activities
This section tackles three quite separate and different aspects of development, all of which will relate to you in some way. They are:
Career Development concerns the progress you make over time within organisations which satisfies your developing aspirations.
Personal Development has to do more with your own desires and wishes and how these can be met. You will find all three described in more detail below. Although they are all different, they also fit together and overlap. It is sometimes difficult to see where one begins and the other ends. How your career develops depends at least to some extent on the context in which you are managing, and how you have developed as a manager. How you develop at work will be affected by how you are as a person; your home life, family life and social life. This overlap may be demonstrated by the fact that you may be reading this manual because you are undergoing some programme of development, of which this is a part. You may already have discovered that the Programme has affected your personal life. You are probably hoping that this sacrifice will help your career.
Because you are at work, Career Development is the main theme of this section and will be your starting-point
You may have different reasons for wanting to develop yourself, such as:
Career Development
Career Development implies your progress within organisations. It therefore has to take place against the context of the sort of organisation in which you are currently employed and what its present and future needs are. A lot of research has recently been conducted about careers in the light of other changes, such as flatter management structures and team building within organisations. You may wish to consider your career in a quite different way. You might ask yourself what success and achievement mean to you and how that will affect your career. Career management and development are all explored in this session.
Personal Development
When it comes to Personal Development, people experience the world differently because each person develops his/her own map or model of the world from the information he or she receives through his/her senses. Robert Dilts, an originator of NLP* (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), has built a simple model for demonstrating that learning and change take place at different levels.
You may feel that all the above is irrelevant to your progress at work; that your inner life is completely your own affair and nothing to do with anyone else; that in fact you do not want to examine your own inner motivation too closely for whatever good reason. However you may also wish to ask yourself, ''Who is in charge here?'' If you are working at only a very superficial level, you may never get to understand why you are successful or otherwise at doing certain things. It may be that you do not want to do something enough - but if you never know this nor come to terms with it, you may deceive yourself into thinking that it was just bad luck or someone else's fault. Research indicates that those who feel they have a greater measure of inner control over outer events do in fact exercise that control. Those who feel they do not, or that it is largely a matter of luck or circumstances, are also correct. In other words we have the choice of self-fulfilling prophecies - positive or negative. Our inner attitude does affect whether we are successful or not, in our own terms.
Development Needs
By this stage you should have produced a list of development needs to enable you to build up a picture.
Figure 2. The Development Cycle
(1)
Real concern
Experience
Happening
Problem
Task
Surprise
Shock
Unexpected
Puzzlement
(2)
Observing
Reflecting
Thinking
Pondering
Discussing
(3)
New ways of perceiving
oneself and the world,
of making sense of things
New thoughts, concepts, ideas, values
New awareness, acknowledgement,
understanding and expression
of feelings, different feelings
New attitudes, motivation, skills,
habits, determination, intentions
(4)
Trying things out
New actions and expectations.
The Development Processes
Development in whatever sphere is a reiterative process. It is based on an assessment of the current situation, recognising where we need to change, coming up with ideas and the theories which might help, making plans, using experiences and other people and then getting on with it. The results then have to be reviewed, changes made and the whole process started again. John Boydell has described this as a cycle (see Figure 2).
Learning to Learn
Another way of describing this cycle would be the learning cycle. How you learn, how you apply that learning and the conscious knowledge of what you are learning will have a profound effect on your progress. Great emphasis is placed on your understanding of these aspects in this section.. Considerable time is devoted to your style of learning and problem solving. What that style is will also affect your use and enjoyment of the manual. If you are of a more reflective nature, you may enjoy thinking back over your whole life and making sense of all its ups and downs. If you are more active, you may enjoy making a drawing of it, but are so eager to get started that you discover very early on that you have got the scale all wrong and have to start again. Theorists will be glad to know that Learning Styles are explained in much more detail in the Learning to Learn section (Session 4). For those of a pragmatic turn of mind who want to know the point of such an exercise, the answer lies in how much effort you want to put into it and whether you are convinced that the effort is worth it.
Action Learning and Working with Others
Those of you who have been managers for some time will probably recognise that most of your learning to be a manager comes from actually doing the job rather than from courses or conferences. New challenges presented daily teach you techniques and methods. You also learn from observing others, having role models and by example. You can discover how to build on this experience in Session 4, Action Learning.
Health in Mind and Body
It would be a mistake to think that we do not all suffer from pressure at work, at some time or another. If you are attempting a programme of study at the same time, this may add to these pressures. Session 12, Health in Mind and Body, has been written to help you consider your own stress levels and what you can do to alleviate them. In other words, to manage your own situation.
Self-development Plans
You have a list of needs and it is hoped that the Development Processes introduced you to ideas on how those needs might be satisfied.
You will do this by diagnosing what needs to be done, setting goals covering your skills and knowledge and then deciding how these should be evaluated. This latter point is the most crucial. How will you know when you have achieved a goal?
Reading:
Transition: Understanding and Managing Personal Change: Anbar AIS025
Database: T Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YU12
Style: Practitioner
Title: Learning to love change
Author(s): E.Gilbert, B. H.Kleiner
Journal: The Leadership & Organisation Development Journal
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 14 No 5 93
Page: (2 pages)
Abstract: Contends that there are two schools of thought about change - one that says people welcome change, the other that people resist change because of fear of the unknown - and that change lovers are those who have higher levels of teachable skills, namely commitment, control, challenge and connection. Discusses two accepted methods of change: the organization development approach aims to achieve, in an orderly manner, effective management of change and making change successful; and the Tom Peters approach, which puts responsibility for learning to love change on the leadership of the organisation, on making the firm a ` hotbed of tests of the unconventional', creating a vision and an environment where creativity and innovation can flourish through employee empowerment. Believes that, by involving and encouraging employees, both these methods are means by which change can successfully be implemented.
Subject: CHANGE MANAGEMENT, EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YW43
Style: Practitioner
Title: Managing and understanding large systems change -*
Author(s): J. S.Fiorelli, H.Margolis
Journal: Organizational Development Journal
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Autumn 93 (11/3)
Page: 1 (13 pages)
Abstract: Offers definitions of large-scale systems change, stressing that change is necessary for survival, and argues that it is a mistake to view resistance to change - a natural tendency in organizations - as the response of malevolent or uncaring people, or simply as a reaction to the proposed new ways of doing things, and that logic and reasoning alone are likely to prevail. Examines frameworks for large systems change that are essential if resistance is to be handled effectively, lists questions and individual concerns that must be answered and considered, and discusses guiding principles for the planning and implementation of the change process. A sturdy and common-sense approach.
You and Your Career
Introduction
What is a ''career''? The Shorter Oxford Dictionary says that it is ''a person's progress through life, a profession offering opportunities for advancement''. It is unlikely that anyone would argue with the first part but there may have to be some rethinking about the word ''advancement''. This has come to mean ever upwards and onwards with a salary level and other rewards to match. This may not be the future. There is a glut of managers and many organisations are cutting their hierarchies to remain competitive. Today's managers may have to settle for a career where their skills and knowledge widen and deepen; where they may have more and different responsibilities but not in the hierarchical sense. This chapter is intended to get you thinking about your organisation (and whether you fit it) and what organisation it might be in the future. It is also intended to make you look at the future in terms of what it might bring in satisfaction other than an executive parking-space.
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to:
Activities
Now prepare a set of targets with a predetermined time-scale which will get you where you want to be.
"Career Growth: A Model and Methods for changing times " by Mark Guterman. Anbar: SN74.
Database: TW Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YU67
Style: Practitioner
Title: The dimensions and dilemma of change
Author(s): R.Eales-White
Journal: Industrial and Commercial Training
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 25 No 9 93
Page: 28 (9 pages)
Abstract: Provides an overview of change and how to manage it, looking at the factors that can be involved in change and setting out their dimensions; discusses the other aspects of change, e.g. level of continuity with the past, the phasing of change and its frequency, and then moves on to discuss the central dilemma of managing change: the conflict of coping with both uncertainty and unpredictability. Also exposes the dilemma of writing for a wide audience: readability v. over- simplification.
Subject: CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Database: T Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YV51
Style: Practitioner
Title: Time for a change
Author(s): J.Kaye
Journal: Infomatics
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Nov 93 (14/11)
Page: 22 (5 pages)
Abstract: Outlines the five-step restructuring plan implemented by Dominion Insurance, covering: analysis of the market; assessment of the organization; overall planning; planning organizational change; and implementation. Stresses the importance of all stages and that of considering IT and business concerns together, and highlights the importance of flexibility and the general basis for implementation of change: alignment between IT systems; business vision and organizational structure; fostering of commitment, support and ownership through sharing of business values; systems design and planning; and finally the development of staff competence. Reviews another example of change, at Citibank, and discusses some of the software available to handle change and project management; finally comments on resistance to change, among both management and users, and the reasons for this.
Subject: IT RE-ENGINEERING, INSURANCE COMPANIES, CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Action learning and learning to learn
Introduction
You may never be aware that you are learning. On the other hand you may sometimes be very aware of it. Somehow it has percolated into the conscious. In fact, we are all learning all of the time, but in a rather disjointed hit-and-miss way. Opportunities to learn, especially for managers, are all around us and we could milk them much more than we do. We can also be much more aware of what we need to learn and set up learning situations. You may not have known previously that you have a learning style that affects you.
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to:
b>Activities
The advantages of having a broader range of learning skills are that you become a more effective learner from life's events and, if you are a trainer as I am, you are more likely to be able to help a greater range of trainees by being a more effective trainer. I want to illustrate how I personally have made use of a knowledge of my own learning style preferences to become a more effective trainer. I do this not in any boastful way but as a means of trying to encourage you to develop your own learning skills and thus become better at helping other people to learn.
This questionnaire is designed to find out your preferred learning style(s). Over the years you have probably developed learning ''habits'' that help you benefit more from some experiences than from others. Since you are probably unaware of this, this questionnaire will help you pin-point your learning preferences so that you are in a better position to select learning experiences that suit your style.
There is no time limit to this questionnaire. It will probably take you 10-15 minutes. The accuracy of the results depends on how honest you can be. There are no right or wrong answers. If you agree more than you disagree with a statement put a tick by it ( ). If you disagree more than you agree put a cross by it (X). Be sure to mark each item with either a tick or a cross.
 |
You score one point for each item you ticked ( ). There are no points for items you crossed (X). Simply indicate on the lists below which items were ticked.
 |
There are almost always variations-people do not often fit stereotypes, but this will give you a rough idea of you favoured learning style.
Learning Styles Description
Activists
Enjoy the here and now, dominated by immediate experiences, tend to revel in short term crises, fire fighting. Tend to thrive on the challenge of new experiences but are relatively bored by the implementation and longer-term consolidation. They are the life and soul of the managerial party.
Reflectors
Like to stand back and ponder their experiences and observe them from different perspectives. They collect data and analyse it before coming to any conclusions. They tend to be cautious. They actually enjoy observing other people in action and often take a back seat at meetings.
Theorists
Are keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories and models. they prise rationality and logic. They tend to be detached, analytical and are unhappy with subjective or ambiguous experiences. They like to assemble disparate facts into coherent theories. They like to make things tidy and fit them into rational schemes.
Pragmatist
Positively search out new ideas and take the first opportunity to experiment with applications. The sort of people who return from management courses brimming with new ideas that they want to try out in practice. They respond to problems and opportunities "as a challenge" .
Reading:
Action Learning as a new idea , M.L. Jones Anbar ref. AIS 003
Reference: VG80
Title: Creating a Learning Organisation
Author:J. Burgoyne
Journal: RSA Journal
Country: UK
Volume/ Date: !40/5428 April 92
Page: 321 (12 pages)
Abstract: Explains that organisations need to learn to survive but that survival is evidence only of weak learning; creates a model of a learning process in organisations using only four activities; individual thinking, group thinking (policy making), individual doing and group doing (= operations); relates the learning experience to the multifarious possible interactions between these four processes, eg. the influence of operations on an individuals thinking. From research, identifies and discusses characteristics that were prevalent in organisations that seemed to be able to learn and adapt eg. participative policy making self development possibilities for all.
A Short Introduction to Action Learning
Action Learning is one of the most important tools for your development. It is an important adjunct to learning to learn. Where change is almost continuous, managers have to be able to learn about the processes which have helped problem solving even more than the specifics which have helped each problem. In Action Learning managers learn to take effective action by reviewing and interpreting their experience in order to identify what it is they have learned. Action Learning is a social process. You will find other people are very involved in the process and they will find that their learning also increases.
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to:
''Deliberation is the work of many men. Action, of one alone!''Charles de Gaulle
Activities
Have you ever experienced action learning yourself? You probably didn't call it that but, now you know what the basic essentials are, have you done it? Has anyone encouraged you to do it
Reading:
Anbar. AIS 025 Putting Action Learning into Action by David Boddy
Objectives
At the end of this session you should be able to
Reading:
AIS026 How IMC Briefs Its Set Advisors
Roles of Set Advisors
Reading:
ANBAR AIS 027 Structuring Set Advisor Development Using Stimulated Analysis
Action Learning
Introduction
It is envisaged that all Action Learning projects take place within the organisation, either in a department where you work or in related departments.
Projects have a dual function. They contain real work of practical use within the organisation and in a addition provide a vehicle for learning about the processes of an organisation.
Projects must contain these two elements in balance to be acceptable i.e. concern for immediately useful action must not overwhelm the opportunities to learn, while the creation of an effective learning process must not degenerate into a lifeless albeit scholarly project.
Terms of reference specifying the nature, objectives, methods of working and "internal client" for each project must be agreed in advance. The production, clarification, discussion and implementation of these terms of reference themselves illustrate the duality of taking effective action and learning from it. The terms of reference should form part of a Project Proposal of about 1000 words. This will then be the basis of agreement of the project among the support staff, the Set Advisor and the Client.
Objectives
The widest feasible scope, providing for flexibility, relevance and immediacy, however, contains risks of confusion and lack of clarity for any project. The following general rules will reduce the risk that the project will fail to satisfy its main objectives:
An Action Learning Approach to Performance by Jonathan Coates Anbar Ref: AIS 026 .
Now is the time to look over your Log Book
Review the section on Using A Log Book for Action Learning in Session One and check that you have made a check list of significant events
Your weekly review should have been a summary of main points or a drawing together of ideas into a conclusion. This Review Session should enable you to plan the next steps in pursuit of your Action Goals.
It is essential to review your Log at least monthly to review your learning experiences, if possible with your collegues.
Evaluate your approach to Action Learning using the Log and identify areas where there are challenges.
Reading:
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV99
Style: Practitioner
Title: Networking TQM for small manufacturing
Author(s): G. R.Simons, C.Kerr
Journal: Journal for Quality and Participation
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Oct/Nov 93 (16/6)
Page: 6 (6 pages)
Abstract: Presents a very interesting case study of a local self- help quality network of small manufacturers, showing how public authorities provided pump-priming support to help them achieve a nationally recognized quality standard. Describes how a combination of effective networking and action learning helped maintain and expand the network, and analyses the key lessons for others who might want to try it too. Well worth a
read.
Subject: TQM, NETWORKING, SMALL BUSINESSES, ACTION LEARNING
A Team Management Starter
TMS INTRODUCTION
Team Management Systems (TMS) is a set of practical techniques designed to improve individual and team performance within organisations of all kinds and sizes. TMS has been used for:
The Team Management Wheel
The Team Management Wheel displays the major roles which are to be found in effective, well-balanced teams. More information about the Wheel is given later.
The Team Management Index
The Team Management Index is a 60-item 'questionnaire' designed to measure work preferences. When an individual's responses to the Index are processed by the TMA software program, the result is a 4000-word personal Team Management Profile (with the latest 'Versions 3.0' software, a total of 208 Team Management profile variations are possible). Each profile 'maps' the individual on to the Team Management Wheel and provides detailed feedback about the way they prefer to work in such key areas as:
INTRODUCTION
The business environment today is often so complex and in such a continual state of change that success depends upon the outputs of teams or work groups rather than the efforts of individual people. Gone are the days when a person could single-handedly build an empire. Tomorrow's managers will be leaders of teams and therefore must understand team dynamics and how to 'steer' their teams towards high performance.
In our research over a seven-year period, Margerison and Mc Cann were intrigued as to why some teams are highly successful and yet others fail, even when the individual abilities of team members in the 'winning' and 'losing' teams seem to be about the same. There is something about certain groups of people that enables them to work together and develop synergy whereas others collapse or even 'tear themselves apart'.
Margerison and Mc Cann are convinced now that the answer lies in linking together individual work preferences and that managers of teams can only be successful if they fully understand the differences between team members' preferences. Each team member will have a different approach to work, and the team members will often have a different way of doing things from their leader. Only by understanding and managing these differences can teams work through their conflicts and 'link' themselves together into a coherent whole.
WORK FUNCTIONS
The starting point for our research into Team Management Systems (TMS) was to identify the key work elements that need to be addressed if a team is to be successful. Margerison and Mc Cann interviewed many teams from different business sectors - industry, finance, consulting, marketing, planning, engineering, and so on, and developed a model known as the 'Types of Work Model'. This model identifies nine key work functions which are common to all teams, regardless of their work content
Advising
Advising work is associated with gathering information and disseminating it to others People engaged in this type of work will typically gather data from written sources or from contact with others and collect it into report form for use in decision making. Some people may spend up to 70% of their time in this sort of activity, where data is collected and passed on to others in the team for action. Corporate planners and information officers may often work in this way.
Innovating
Once an organisation has gathered information about the 'state of the art' or found out what competitors are doing, the work activity may then move into a different phase. Here people will think up new products or services, or ways of improving existing ones. This work activity can be described as innovating - creating ideas that will potentially put the organisation ahead of its competitors People working in the research and development area of an organisation may spend much of their time in an innovating work function.
Promoting
It is no good thinking up ideas unless they can be 'sold' both inside and outside the organisation. This, essentially, is the promoting function - an important component of the work of any team. Many good ideas are lost simply because they are poorly 'promoted', and this is often a weakness in the work of teams. Several chief executives have mentioned to us their disappointment in many of their managers because of the managers' inability to search out new opportunities and persuade others of their value. Promoting is a key task which involves exploring options and advocating new ways of doing things.
Developing
Once the opportunity has been promoted, the work activity often moves into the developing phase. The ideas must be made to work and therefore further development is often required. There may be two or three different ways of implementing the ideas within certain practical constraints imposed by the nature of the organisation 'Developing' may involve prototype testing or the assessment of alternative versions of ideas to see which is going to be the best one to implement.
Organising
Now the ideas are ready for implementation. Plans have to be made, budgets approved and schedules established so that the product or service can be implemented according to deadlines and bottom-line outputs. This is the organising activity that many line managers are used to. Project managers, in particular, may spend more than 50% of their work time in an organising role, ensuring that team members know what is required and keeping people to their objectives.
Producing
Once the plans and schedules are 'in place' Margerison and Mc Cann can start producing the product or service on a regular basis to high standards of effectiveness and efficiency. This is the operating work of the organisation and the activity that contributes directly to the bottom-line outputs. Production managers typically spend much of their time in this work function. It is a vital aspect of teamwork where tangible results can be measured in terms of client services and delivery.
Inspecting
Work involving inspecting and auditing is very important in all organisations, to ensure that quality is maintained and controls are established. Many teams Margerison and Mc Cann have worked with are failing due to weaknesses in this area People working in finance and accounts often spend much of their time in this work function, as do quality-control engineers and others who are concerned with ensuring accuracy and precision.
Maintaining
There is a need in all teams and organisations to provide the infrastructure that enables the above activities to proceed in the most efficient manner. This is the role of the maintaining function which is often provided corporately by the support activities of, for example, the administration and personnel departments. However, 'maintaining' is also needed in all work teams so that the diverse activities outlined in the above work functions can be effectively supported.
Linking
Finally there is the central function of linking, through which the work of the above eight functions needs to be co-ordinated and integrated. Often this is a major responsibility of the team leader, but in mature teams every team member must spend some time working in the linking area.
WORK PREFERENCES
In speaking with people primarily engaged in the various work functions - promoting, organising, inspecting, advising, and so on l- Margerison and Mc Cann found that those who really liked their work showed similar behavioural characteristics. 'Promoting ' people, for example, were often quite extroverted whereas 'inspecting' people were more introverted. 'Innovating' people were obviously quite creative whereas 'producing' people were very much practically oriented. This then led us into attempting to find a relationship between the Types of Work Model and 'people' characteristics.
Margerison and Mc Cann experimented initially with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) as a way of assessing people but were disappointed in the reliability of the results they obtained, probably because the MBTI attempts to assess a personality 'type' across both 'work' and 'non-work' situations. Margerison and Mc Cann now know from their own work and that of others (Kabanoff, 1980) that work and non-work are often two distinct compartments in a person's life and that behaviours in each compartment can be totally different. Thus, someone who is extroverted at work may be more introverted in a non-work situation so as to 'recharge the batteries' for the next day.
THE TEAM MANAGEMENT INDEX
Nonetheless, Margerison and Mc Cann believe that Jung's original work on 'psychological types' (Jung, 1923) is a powerful way of identifying people differences, and therefore decided to use his ideas but adapt them for the work situation. In doing so they developed and validated a new instrument which is called the Team Management Index (Margerison and McCann, 1988).
In the workplace there are four key issues at the heart of managerial differences. Margerison and Mc Cann describe these issues as:
In the process of relating with their, managers will gather and use various types of information. They will do this in either a practical or a creative manner. Practical people will prefer to work with tested ideas and pay attention to the facts and details, whereas creative people are more future-oriented, enjoying ambiguous situations and always looking for the possibilities and implications.
Once the information has been gathered, it is necessary to make decisions. Some people go on about this in an analytical way, setting up objective decision-making criteria and choosing the solution which maximises the pay-off. Others will tend to make decisions more according to their beliefs., where personal principles and values will have a much greater impact upon their decision making.
Decisions have to be implemented within an organisational framework and there are two distinct preferences that managers exhibit here. Some like a structured environment where things are neat and tidy, and where action is taken quickly to resolve issues. Others prefer to be more flexible and to make sure that all possible information has been gathered before decisions are taken. They prefer to spend their time diagnosing the situation and will tend to put off 'concluding' and 'resolving' until they have gathered all the information they can.
These four key work preference factors are measured by the Team Management Index, which identifies a position somewhere along each continuum.
THE TEAM MANAGEMENT WHEEL
The next step in our research was to relate the results from the Team Management Index to the Types of Work Model. Margerison and Mc Cann carried out a study (see Advise, 1988) where managers were asked to describe their work preferences in terms of promoting, organising, etc., and they simultaneously assessed their preferences with the Index. The end result was a mapping of the constructs, as defined by the Team Management Index, on to the Types of Work Model. For example, people with a preference for extroversion, creative information gathering, analytical decision making and flexible organisation (ECAF) correlated strongly with the promoting function as did those who showed a preference for being extroverted, creative, beliefs-oriented and structured (ECBS). Those with a preference for introversion, practical information-gathering, analytical decision making and flexible organisation (IPAF) correlated strongly with the inspecting function, as did those with IPBS preferences.
The final outcome of all our work was a teamwork 'map' called the Team Management Wheel, on which a person's score from the Team Management Index can be located.
The Wheel has eight outer sectors with 'double-barrelled' names such as Explorer-Promoter, Assessor-Developer, and so on. The first word, for example 'Explorer', indicates the behaviour exhibited by a person mapping into that sector, whereas the second word is derived from the work content in the Types of Work Model.
The scoring from the Team Management Index will indicate one sector as a person's major preference and a further two as 'related' or 'back-up' roles. Thus someone might show a preference as a Creator-Innovator with related roles as Thruster-Organiser and Concluder-Producer, or as a Controller-Inspector with related roles of Concluder-producer and Upholder-Maintainer.
Responses to the Index are analysed by a specially developed computer program to produce a 4000-word report - a Team Management Profile. The profile describes individual work preferences in terms of decision making, interpersonal skills, team building, leadership and the like. Below are some general characteristics of each sector of the Team Management Wheel.
Reporter-Advisers
Reporter-Advisers represent the classic advisory role on the Team Management Wheel. They are excellent at gathering information and putting it together in such a way that it can be readily understood. If they are more introverted, they will probably rely on written formats for their information, whereas if they are more extroverted they will be good communicators and probably rely on a network of colleagues and acquaintances for their data.
Reporter-Advisers are patient people who prefer to make sure they have all relevant information before they take action. This often causes others, particularly Thruster-Organisers, to accuse them of procrastination, but Reporter-Advisers will typically respond: 'How can I take action unless I have all the information?' Thruster-Organisers, who often take action with only 20% of the information, sometimes find this hard to understand.
Reporter-Advisers do not usually enjoy conflict and have 'antennae' that can detect a potential conflict well before it happens. Usually they will move to defuse the conflict or else position themselves well away from any direct effects.
Creator-Innovators
Creator -Innovators are people who are more 'future-oriented'; they will enjoy thinking up new ideas and new ways of doing things. Usually they are very independent and will pursue their ideas regardless of present systems and methods. They therefore need to be managed in such a way that their ideas can be developed without too many organisational constraints. Organisations may set up research and development units (often separated from the production units) to allow these people to experiment with ideas.
Creator-Innovators are sometimes accused (usually by those who are on the opposite side of the Team Management Wheel) of 'having their head in the clouds', but this is because they are likely to be looking to tomorrow rather than worrying about today. They are usually not very structured in the way they go about things and may sometimes appear disorganised and absent-minded. Some are more introverted, preferring to be 'back-room' people, working on their own or in small groups on important problems. Others can be more outgoing and even zealous in the way they put forward ideas they really believe in.
Explorer-Promoters
Explorer-Promoters are excellent at taking ideas and promoting them to others, both inside and outside the organisation. They enjoy being with people and will usually have a network of people that they use when gathering information and testing out opportunities. usually they are advocates of change and are highly energised, active people who often have several different activities on the go at once. They enjoy being 'out and about' and are good at bringing back contacts and resources which an help the organisation move forward.
Explorer-Promoters are usually entrepreneurial in their approach and they can be very persuasive. They are often influential and can talk easily, even on subjects where they are not experts. They are excellent at seeing 'the big picture' and developing an enthusiasm for an innovation amongst other people. However, they are not always interested in 'controlling' and 'organising' and do not always pay sufficient attention to details. In this regard they will often benefit from having a Concluder-Producer or Controller-Inspector to work with, although they may sometimes have difficulties in interacting with these people.
Explorer-Promoters enjoy impromptu conversations and need to interact with others to be at their productive best. It is not for them to sit in a back-room working alone on their problems - they need people to stimulate them.
They are quick to see an opportunity and seize it before it disappears. Sometimes in their careers they may 'get their fingers burnt' but this does not seem to worry them - they rebound back again, looking for the next opportunity. It is this characteristic, of course, that is essential for successful exploring and promoting.
Assessor-Developers
Assessor-Developers are located on the Team Management Wheel mid-way between the Explorers and the Organisers and they therefore exhibit both these types of behaviour. They may not always think up good ideas for themselves but they are excellent at taking the idea and making it work in practice. They are usually sociable, outgoing people who enjoy developing new markets or opportunities. They will then take the idea and match it to the opportunity, always mindful of the organisational 'bottom-line' constraints. They often make good product development managers or people concerned with assessing new ventures.
Assessor-Developers usually display a strong analytical approach and are at their best with several different possibilities to analyse and develop before a decision is made. They like organising new activities and respond well to such challenges, taking an idea and pushing it forward into a workable scheme. However, once the activity has been set up and been shown to work, they will often lose interest, preferring to move on to the next project rather than engage in the production and control of the output.
Thruster-Organisers
Thruster-Organisers are people who enjoy making things happen. They are analytical decision makers, always doing what is best for the task even if sometimes their actions upset others. Their great ability is to get things done on time and to budget, and for this reason they are often found working in project management-type positions. They will 'thrust' forward towards a goal, meeting conflict head-on if necessary.
Usually they prefer to work to a plan and in a structured manner, so that objectives are clearly set out and everyone in the team knows what has to be achieved and when. They excel at organising people and systems to meet deadlines. They will set objectives, establish plans, work out who should do what and then press for action. They tend to be task-oriented and in their pursuit of goals may sometimes ignore people's feelings. This, more than anything else, can get them into difficulties with their subordinates and colleagues. The mature Thruster-Organiser, however, balances the need for action with consideration for others.
Concluder-Producers
Concluder-Producers are strongly practical people who can be counted on to carry things through to the end. Their strength is in setting up plans and standard systems so that output can be achieved on a regular basis in a controlled and orderly fashion. For this reason they usually do not like rapid change, as it interferes with the efficient systems they have established for doing the work. This may sometimes cause them difficulties with Creator-Innovators and Explorer-Promoters who continually try to change the way of doing things.
For Concluder-Producers, the challenge lies not in dreaming up new ideas but in doing the work effectively and efficiently. They are therefore often more patient than others with routine work, as the drive for them comes from a 'job well done'. As a result, they are sought after as managers for their ability to work in a reliable, dependable and stable manner, and deliver results. Their studies with managers (see Davies, 1988) have shown that some 27% of a worldwide sample of middle and senior managers had the Concluder-Producer role as their major preference.
Controller-Inspectors
Controller-Inspectors are more quiet, reflective people who enjoy the detailed side of work and like working with facts and figures. They are usually careful and meticulous and can spend long periods of time on a particular task, working quietly on their own. This stands in direct contrast to Explorer-Promoters, who need a wide variety of tasks to engage their attention, and people around them with whom they can interact.
Controller-Inspectors are comfortable working within the rules and regulations which have been established. They would probably argue that the rules have been made to ensure that the organisation works in the most efficient manner and therefore everyone should follow them. For this reason they enjoy working in situations where their output is guided by organisational or governmental regulations. Margerison and Mc Cann have found many of them working in finance, accounting, security and quality-control positions, where their 'inspecting' preferences are important assets for the work they are doing.
Upholder-Maintainers
Upholder-Maintainers are people with strong personal values and principles, and these are of prime importance in their decision making. Usually they have a high concern for people and will be strongly supportive of those who share the same ideals and values as they do.
They prefer to work in a control-oriented, supportive way, making sure that things are done according to their standards. In addition, they usually prefer more of an advisory role rather than a leading executive role. However, because of their strong principles, they will 'dig their heels in' when confronting issues which oppose their beliefs. They will not react in an extroverted, quick-tempered way but in a more resilient, often obstinate manner which an be irritating to Thruster-Organisers. In fact a meeting between a Thruster-Organiser and an Upholder-Maintainer will sometimes be like 'an irresistible force meeting the immovable object'! The Upholder-Maintainer, however, who is in support of the team is an invaluable member, providing guidance and help on issues that need to be well thought through in terms of principles rather than just 'economics'.
Reading:
Database: P/M/W Personnel and Training Abstracts
Title:Cross-functional teams in product development - **
Author(s): A.Donnellon
Journal: The Journal of Product Innovation Management
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Nov 93 (10/5)
Page: 377 (16 pages)
Abstract: Recognizes that cross-functional teams are being used by more and more US companies in product development, and contrasts theoretical arguments for their desirability with practical evidence that companies find the transition painful and that members approach them with the same apparatus of individual competitiveness and lack of mutual trust that seems to be typical of their other lives in the hierarchy. Drawing on detailed surveys of four unnamed Fortune 200 companies, attempts to discover what teamwork means in practice, how it is accomplished, and the challenges and constraints it imposes; drawing further on theories of psychology and motivation, explores how to change individual attitudes to maximize team effectiveness and how the firm's organizational structures may need to be changed to accommodate the team process.
Subject: CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS, ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Reference: Anbar YX48 Style: Practitioner
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YW 5
Style: Academic
Title: Integrating individuals and organizations
Author(s): R.Davies
Journal: The International Journal of Career Management
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 5 No 5 93
Page: 24 (6 pages)
Abstract: Introduces a career management methodology - the team management index and the types of work index - claimed to integrate organizational and individual needs by describing managerial job profiles or work projects in terms of the relative importance of eight work functions - advising, innovating, promoting, developing, organizing, producing, inspecting and maintaining. Examines the validity and reliability of the approach, and discusses how the team management index can be used to describe managerial roles, and to determine the match between individual preferences and types of work. Concludes that careers should be seen as longitudinal concepts in which work preferences can change as individuals progress through different formal jobs; as social as well as individual concepts, influenced by the careers of others; and as a meshing of individuals with the environment.
Subject: CAREER MANAGEMENT, TEAM MANAGEMENT INDEX
Database: T/P Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YY10
Style: Practitioner
Title: 3M's sophisticated formula for teamwork
Author(s): M. K.Allio
Journal: Planning Review
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Nov/Dec 93 (21/6)
Page: 19 (3 pages)
Abstract: Reports on how 3M set about moving from a divisionalized culture to one characterized by participation and risk-taking; sets out criteria for successful action teams to bring about such change, e. g. committing to upfront planning; advises on managing the process through empowerment, budgetary control and reward selection; acknowledges certain caveats, for instance middle management concerns and recognizing when a team is struggling (characterized by features such as a lack of listening and the dominance of certain members). Not much detail, but plenty of common sense.
Subject: TEAMS, CONGLOMERATES, CORPORATE CULTURE, EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
References
Team Types
Introduction
Each team member will have a different approach to work - and often a different way of doing things - from their manager. Only by understanding and managing these differences can teams work through their conflicts and 'link' themselves together into a coherent whole. If a team is to have a chance of becoming 'high performing', therefore, it needs to consider two criteria:
BALANCED TEAMS
The successful management of work teams is a key factor in the effectiveness of an organisation. Although different managers succeed in creating successful teams in different ways, they tend to agree that they are aiming at achieving a winning combination where everyone works together to achieve the tasks objectives that the organisation has set itself. Some teams may require a formal 'manager' to do this whereas others will be more 'self-directed', but the principles are the same - the team needs to develop balance and it must be well linked.
Sporting Teams
It is easy to see the concept of balanced teams in the context of sport. Teams compete against one another and their success is measured by the points they gain for wins or draws. Indeed, the lessons learned from 'sporting teams' have an important application in the formation and operation of management teams. The comparisons are clear: any team can only win if it uses the abilities of its members in a co-ordinated team effort rather than in a series of individual activities. Whereas one or two individuals may shine above the others, at the end of the day a team wins consistently because the team members complement one another.
Whether a team is playing football, baseball, basketball, netball, hockey, or any other game, its main objective is to win. A similar situation often occurs in work teams, although it is not always realised by the team members. For example, one organisation in, say, the furniture industry is competing for market share with another organisation in the same industry; at international level, one car company in the USA is competing against another in Japan. These team members may not always 'see' their opponents, as of course they do in sporting competitions, but nonetheless a 'competition' is underway. The efforts of individuals combine to produce team outputs and goals, and ultimately one team 'gains more points' than the others.
Sports teams usually succeed only if they are well balanced. It is no good having a team which is strong on defence but weak on attack (offence). Equally, a sports team may fail if its players are good on the left side of the field but poor on the right side. So it is with management teams - they must have people who can explore opportunities and create openings, as well as those who are able to focus in on the detail.
The Disney Team
In the Disney partnership it was Walt who was the major 'Explorer'. He was full of ideas which led him to develop such great cartoon films as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, Bambi, and many others. Working alongside him was his brother, Roy, who spent a considerable amount of time controlling and organising the business. His job was to identify how much money had been spent on particular projects and to ensure that further revenue was generated and allocated. He was prepared to back his brother's artistic and creative genius even to the extent that, with the Snow White film, they both put everything they had into the film and spent $1.3 million 'on the blind chance of surviving and getting a return on it'.
Invariably,Walt Disney's ideas ran ahead of the money and the organisational arrangements. It was not until later in his life that his ideas gained the widespread support that would ensure success.
The differences between Walt and Roy Disney illustrate what it takes to get a successful business off the ground. Teamwork is essential and requires different people playing different roles. The person who is good at one particular aspect of work may well be very poor at another aspect. For example, Roy Disney said of his brother:
'Success is hard to take. Walt had moved with his creative talent on his own bent. Business was a damned nuisance to him. After Snow White he wanted to make two animated features a year. We couldn't sustain it. Every creative fellow is so concentrated he does not like to think through the market. Walt was that kind of a guy until he learned his lesson. Afterwards he became very conscious of market studies. He learned fast.'
It was, therefore, through experience that Walt Disney began to realise the need for a wider approach to teamwork and the need to bring in different skills. Initially he was so caught up in his own ideas that he believed they would win through themselves. It was only when he ran into difficulty and people did not support his projects that he began in bring in a team of other people who could do the market research and assess the business viability of his ideas.
It is clear that Roy was more a 'Controller', although he clearly had difficulty in keeping his brother's imagination in line with the practical realities of the business details. Walt saw the big vision of what could be. Roy saw the detail of what 'is'. Nevertheless, they learned and began to work together well.
In their own research Margerison and Mc Cann have been able to quantify what Walt Disney and others have found through experience. If a team is to be successful, two essential conditions have to be met:
If a team is unbalanced, it will have too many people with similar work preferences. For example, a team of five or six people with 'Controller' preferences will tend to see the world in the same way. While they may be excellent at doing detailed, accurate work, they may not always see the wider picture and develop ideas for the future. They may also be weaker on promoting opportunities, and in developing and implementing new products and services.
Similar imbalances can occur, of course, with other work preferences. Consider, for example, a team composed primarily of Explorer-Promoters. These team members are likely to be good at taking ideas and seeing how they can be used. They would also make numerous contacts and be full of ideas on how to influence others. However, they may well miss details and deliver products or services which are incomplete and inaccurate.
In the short term, a team of people who work and think alike may well succeed, but problems will eventually arise related to an imbalance in work preferences. To be successful, a team needs to ensure that all areas of the Team Management Wheel are covered.
The consequence of selecting similar kinds of people for a team is that the major work functions, as defined by the Types of Work Model (see TMS; An Overview, 1990), may not be done effectively. For example, if the team is full of 'Controllers', then the innovating, promoting and developing functions may be given a lower priority. The net result could be a lack of new ideas, little promotion of opportunities and insufficient attention to the development and implementation of products and services.
Ideas in need or organisation
Don Boland, an engineer, invented an ingenious method for carrying a large weight of material on a hand-operated trailer. He developed the idea into a product and formed a company with a number of colleagues. Both he and his colleagues put considerable personal funds into the scheme.
However, the product did not sell, and within a year and a half, the company went bankrupt. When asked why he thought the business had failed, Don said: 'We spent all our time perfecting the product and doing research and development. We ignored the financial side and ran out of cash. We didn't put enough time and effort into selling and marketing the product. If I had my time over again, I would do it differently.
Don Boland's team was unbalanced. All of its members were intelligent, well qualified and good at technical innovation and development, but none of them could bring in resources or promote the idea as a saleable product. The team needed a Thruster-Organiser who would have forced them to meet deadlines and to implement specific action. It also needed someone to control the operation and to make sure they did not run out of money. Don Boland recognised that his team was unbalanced but, unfortunately, his realisation came too late.
Likewise, problems may arise in a team composed of all Organisers, but for different reasons. 'Organiser' teams are usually keen to get into action but they may fail to succeed because team members will not spend enough time gathering information on which to base decisions. The first solution to be thought of is the one that is pushed into action, whereas if a little more time is spent in considering options then far better solutions may arise. Furthermore, each team member will often argue and adhere to their own point of view, and fail to listen to what others are saying. The net result can be conflict and chaos.
Any team that is unbalanced will sooner or later have problems caused by lack of attention to important work functions. Teams biased towards the Creator-Innovator sector, for example, will usually come up with a lot of ideas, but may not have the skills and interest in seeing them through to a finished product. Reporter-Adviser teams will spend a lot of time exploring options but delay decisions until they are convinced they have enough data.
Balanced teams, however, encourage 'multiple descriptions' of the same event and therefore these teams will benefit from having a diversity of views to consider before making decisions. Margerison and Mc Cann have shown many times in management development programmes that balanced teams out-perform teams where people are clustered in one particular part of the Team Management Wheel. In running team management business games, our 'favourite' team over the years has been the one comprised solely of Thruster-Organisers. Every time we have run the game, the Thruster-Organisers have always finished last.
One or two Thruster-Organisers in a team will normally work well but with too many the team may well 'rupture' and fall apart. Each Thruster-Organiser usually ends up 'thrusting' in a different direction and there is no teamwork.
Whilst balance is a necessary condition for high performance it is not by itself a sufficient condition. In a balanced team different 'models of reality' are constantly interacting, presenting different descriptions of the same situation. Now this is healthy for the team and will prevent 'group think' but the team - particularly the team leader - needs to work hard to develop the skills of linking so that the contributions of the team members become synergistic.
Technical Incapacity
A technical committee in a large manufacturing company was performing badly. Its job was to assess the company's research activities, to provide guidance on new product development and product reorganisation, and to suggest guidelines for market research.
The committee held lengthy discussions, visited research establishments and built up a considerable file of information, but little of any significance emerged to influence new or existing products. The group decided to change its composition. It was comprised entirely of technical research specialists who were primarily Advisers and it recognised the need for other inputs. It brought in a production person, a marketing person and a development engineer who also had a reputation for having good interpersonal and linking skills. This changed the way the group operated. Instead of just collecting technical information, it sought to influence product policy and became more effective in terms of the wider organisation.
All of the major work functions have to be covered in order for a team to operate effectively. In a small group this often means that one person has to take on more than one role. Once you have understood the key roles in a team, you can begin to either select team members with the appropriate mix of preferences and skills, or to develop team members so that they 'stretch' to cover the gaps.
Summary of team management problems
Problems in team management occur because:
Database: T/P Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YX41
Style: Practitioner
Title: Anticipatory team learning
Author(s): M.Sashkin, S.Franklin
Journal: The Journal of Management Development
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 12 No 6 93
Page: 34 (10 pages)
Abstract: Runs quickly through the development of teams in organizations and identifies the crucial team issue for the next decade as the development of team-based anticipatory learning, in which people must learn in three modes - crisis problem-solving; learning to do better what one already does; and anticipatory learning. This latter has two aspects that must be tackled: learning general knowledge and skills; and future-focused action learning, which may require skills of which we are not yet fully aware.
Subject: TEAM BUILDING, ANTICIPATORY LEARNING
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YW72
Style: Practitioner
Title: Bridging the gap (team building) - *
Author(s): M.Peltu
Journal: Computing
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: 25 Nov 93
Page: 42 (1 pages)
Abstract: Comments on the perception that there is a culture gap between IS professionals and users, and reports a new approach to solving this problem in terms of team building within work groups, combined with the right corporate policies. Discusses team-building workshops and a scheme in which actions can be related to goal factors, seeing trends whereby some organizations are not moving towards desirable goals; believes that this scheme goes against the general trend for providing separate induction courses for IS staff and advocating hybrid managers. Encouraging, in that this approach seems to advocate the integration of IS staff, rather than taking the (more usual) view that they need to learn more about business objectives, full stop.
Subject: TEAM BUILDING, IS PROFESSIONALS
Reference
Margerison C.J. and McCann D.J., TMS: An Overview, TMS (UK) Ltd, York, 1990
Decision
Introduction
Whenever key issues arise requiring major decisions, it is important to involve all team members . If a decision is imposed from above against the wishes of team members, there is likely to be a high rate of failure. The golden rule is to involve those affected at an early stage. Even if you go ahead and implement your original ideas, the fact that you have involved everyone means that the way towards implementation will be considerably smoother.
When you impose a decision you are the owner of the solution and other people may therefore not give of their best. If however you involve them in the problem solving of key issues they become part owners of the solution and will "go the extra mile" to ensure that solutions are properly implemented.
Try treating your team members as collegues, rather than subordinates who are here to do your bidding. You should also practice your persuading skills to convince team members of your idea.
You could have the best decision you ever thought of , but if the acceptance by the team is low then its effectiveness will be poor. Sometimes its better to go with a lower quality decision in order to gain acceptance and therefore optimise the effectiveness.
In terms of setting objectives, it may be worth asking team members what they can achieve. It is quite possible that they may surprise you and set targets higher than those you had in mind, simply because you involved them in a democratic way rather than imposing the solution autocratically.
The Manager should always:
Participative Decision Making Assessment
Database: P/I Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YU66
Style: Practitioner
Title: Engineering teamwork
Author(s): D. B.Milam
Journal: Manufacturing Breakthrough
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Sep/Oct 93
Page: 27 (4 pages)
Abstract: Considers the increasing growth in manufacturing of team engineering, which is a process designed to ensure complete synergy between the different people and tasks involved in accurate assembly. Discusses the technology of mechanical design automation, which effectively helps work groups achieve greater efficiency, and can also automate extremely complex engineering tasks. Examines team engineering from the people and processes' point of view, then details the three primary technologies which underpin team engineering: the master model; knowledge-driven applications; and product data management. Concludes that team engineering can ensure proper cohesiveness between individuals and can enable manufacturers to improve product quality, time-to-market and development costs.
Subject: TEAMWORK, TEAM ENGINEERING, ASSEMBLY
Database: W Management Services and Production Abstracts
Reference: YR94
Style: Practitioner
Title: Generating strategic thinking through multi-level teams
Author(s): D. L.Bates, J. E.Dillard
Journal: Long Range Planning
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Oct 93 (26/5)
Page: 103 (8 pages)
Abstract: Restates a common failure in strategic planning - that of one management group drawing up the plans and another having to implement them; proposes the use of inter-functional/multi-level planning which co-opts strategic thinkers without regard to their functional specialities or organizational level. Considers the identification of such thinkers and the creation of a strategic planning group, and looks at this group's organizational position, stressing that members maintain their day-to-day responsibilities; addresses possible problems with this approach, mainly political conflicts, and provides three case examples of it in action. Perhaps the message about lower-level involvement is really starting to get through. A point worthy of note here is that, just because people are in senior positions, they do not necessarily have strategic capabilities.
Subject: TEAMS, STRATEGIC PLANNING, CONFLICT
Stress and its avoidance
Introduction
Accepted wisdom is slowly returning to the idea that the mind and body are a whole rather than separate entities which operate without relation to each other. The general health of one has a profound effect on the other for good or ill. This concept is captured in the word Dis-ease. Anyone diseased or distressed is bound to be less effective at work. For the minority of sufferers this can be as extreme as physical or mental breakdowns. Stress management is a skill which everyone will need sometime in their lives. It is stress management rather than stoicism which makes the effective manager.
What is Stress?
To decipher the essence of stress it is necessary to ask a few pertinent questions:
People often say that stress enables them to reach their peak performance level. In this sense, stress is a useful stimulant. However, until stress is effectively managed the case is frequently that performance declines because of the stress.
How do you think you would feel if you were over stressed?
How would you feel if a colleague had stress induced problems?
Using words you associate with stress, write down some of the things you understand by the word "stress". Think of the times you performed well and the times you didn't perform as well at work. Can this be put down to stress?
Reading:
"Managing Organisational Stress" P. O'Connor,C.H. Worley Anbar No. TA80
How Stress Prone are you?
During the 1980s some of the world's financial traders were found to have short but high stress careers from 18 to 28 years old after which they would retire "burnt out but opulent".
The world's key financial markets require what are known as Type A people- all reaction, thriving on sensation and stimulation, rushing, doing several things simultaneously, missing lunches weekends and holidays, disorganised but coming through by hard work, native wit and talent. This personality type is highly stressed and encourages stress in collegues and family. Type B people tend to be more organised, with a more relaxed approach concentrating on one job at a time and separating home and office life. Neither personality types are ideal in isolation. Most people are a combination of the two.
Are you an A or B type person? List the characteristics of the way you like to live and work.
Which are a function of you as a person or of you job?
If you are more than eighty per cent type A then you should consider adopting some type B characteristics.. The simplest way to do this is to invest in time management or delegation help.
Type A individuals are far more likely to suffer from stress-related physical or mental problems.
How do your work roles correspond or conflict with your work preferences?
Reading:
Well-being and Stress at work by Gillian Stamp Anbar No: SS13
Database: M Marketing and Distribution Abstracts
Reference: YT41
Style: Practitioner
Title: Effect of electronic performance monitoring on job design and worker stress
Author(s): P.Carayon
Journal: Human Factors
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Sep 93 (35/3)
Page: 385 (11 pages)
Abstract: Cites a definition of electronic performance monitoring (EPM) as `the computerized collection, storage, analysis, and reporting of information about employees' productive activities'; considers EPM as a technology, and proposes a framework which looks at EPM as a process of gathering information and dimensions of that process relevant to stress. Discusses EPM's effects on job design according to job demands, job control and social support. Concludes with observations as to how to make EPM non-stressful, but notes that it does raise privacy issues which might - in some countries - result in it being outlawed.
Subject: JOB DESIGN, STRESS, ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE MONITORING
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YQ17
Style: Practitioner
Title: Tactics used by customer-contact workers
Author(s): K. A.Weatherly, D. A.Tansik
Journal: International Journal of Service Industry Management
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 4 No 3 93
Page: 4 (14 pages)
Abstract: Investigates the behavioural tactics used by customer- contact workers when they experience role stress and propounds that these workers experience a great deal of such stress (e.g. between answering a customer's query and fulfilling a task allocated by management); outlines various approaches, from ignoring contact with the customer through to rewarding the customer, and shows that there are differing reactions to role stress (such as leaving the job), which can be indicated by the individual's approach to controlling the interaction with customers. This explains a lot about our experience of poor service and could be valuable when selecting and retaining staff.
Subject: STRESS, CUSTOMER SERVICE
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YS28
Style: Practitioner
Title: Perceived locus of control: occupational stress in the ambulance service
Author(s): A. E. C.James, P. L.Wright
Journal: Journal of Managerial Psychology
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 8 No 5 93
Page: 3 (6 pages)
Abstract: Based on the research and questionnaire developed by Levenson which measures whether an individual perceives that the outcomes of a given situation is controlled ( a) by his or her own actions, (b) by a powerful other, or (c) by chance, examines what ambulance workers see as the main influence over the outcomes in their own work and the effect this has on their stress levels. Finds that the theoretical work on locus of control and stress is confirmed, but concludes that, in the case of ambulance workers, the findings do not indicate that changing perceptions concerning the locus of control would be of benefit. Suggests other ways of reducing stress among this group of workers. Interesting discussion, although the result is disappointing.
Subject: AMBULANCE SERVICE, CONTROL, STRESS, JOB SATISFACTION
Getting the Message
Objectives
There are three types of behaviour:
Be Specific- briefly and clearly Repeat your statement to maintain a steady position, thus avoiding manipulation, irrelevance or tension.
Workable compromise: Assertiveness is not about winning, so you need to negotiate from an equal position. This means finding a true compromise which takes the wishes of both parties into consideration. Compromising on a difficult situation doesn't mean compromising your self respect.
Self Disclosure: Use simple statements e.g. I feel guilty. It immediately reduces anxiety and enables you to take control of situations. It teaches the acceptance and initiation of discussion of both the positive and negative aspects of your personality, behaviour, lifestyle, to enhance social communication and reduce manipulation.
COPING WITH CRITICISM
Remember that success attracts criticism and the lack of it attracts obscurity. The opposition is not personal and the other person should be allowed to save face.
Personal Criticism
Even those who say they can take criticism do not like personal criticism. We therefore need methods of coping with personal criticism that do not involve the loss of esteem.
What to do is...
This probes the negative aspects of personal criticism in order to get more information.
It is an especially useful technique for people who are quite close to you in relationships. By using a low key unemotional approach you treat the criticism seriously and do not damage the relationship.
Reading :
"Assertiveness" Anbar AIS: 032
"Recognising Assertive, Non Assertive and Aggressive Behaviour" Anbar AIS: 033.
Presentation Skills
You will find it helpful at this point to cross-refer to the ADA Managerial Communications module.
Reports should be logical, well reasoned documents which present the reader with all the facts he needs on which to base any necessary decision or form any opinion on a topic.
Bias
In theory we should make every effort to eliminate bias but this is difficult in practice. Potential sources of bias include:
A report writer must be clear in his own mind as to what he wants to achieve. Consequently, we must address ourselves to the task in a logical way answering a number of questions as we go. We could usefully include the following:
Reports are very structured documents and more often than not include the following sections:
Reports are normally written from an impersonal viewpoint, essentially to detract from the writer's personality and to focus the reader's attention on the material. For example:
''A random sample of opinions was canvassed within the firm'' is more suitable report language than ''I asked a random number of people for new opinions.''
Sentences should be factual and objective, with adjectives and adverbs reduced to a minimum. Thus:
''We had a disastrous year in France'' reads more appropriately when expressed as ''Sales fell in France by 50 per cent''.
Jargon should be avoided wherever possible. Long words and complicated sentences are rarely appropriate.
Reviewing the report
Having written a report we should leave it for a period before revising and editing it. A gap of 24 hours or so will allow time to think about what has been written and how. It is quite normal for a number of new thoughts to emerge, the inclusion of which will improve the report.
Get the first draft typed. When it comes back it will be much easier to:
Written presentations should:
This will include:
Find out:
Even unsuccessful presentations are valuable. You cannot just waste the investment put into the presentation:
Database: P/M Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YR19
Style: Academic
Title: The widening loop: selling a 1990s deal to varied publics - *
Author(s): R. C.Hubbell
Journal: Mergers & Acquisitions
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol: Sep/Oct 93 (28/2)
Page: 35 (6 pages)
Abstract: Using four case studies of anonymous companies, highlights crucial issues in pre- and post-acquisition communications that the author argues must be tackled in the 1990s; explains how in the first case - a major financial services company was preparing to announce its merger with a smaller company that enjoyed a leadership position in a niche market - the larger company defused anxiety over what would happen to the target company's caring, informal family-oriented tradition once it was subsumed into a new parent. In the second case, reveals the communications strategy of a large American company planning to acquire a large, privately owned European manufacturer, including video presentations to employees with appropriate language voice-overs, and, in the post-acquisition phase, setting up customer `roadshows'. Relates that, in the third case - merging companies which were leaders in functionally related, but essentially different, industries - the strategy focused on conveying to employees and shareholders the business logic and long- term investment appeal of combining. Reports in the final case the particular communications problems of the first publicly owned business in a $5 billion health-care service niche. Succinct, action-oriented report.
Subject: COMMUNICATIONS, ACQUISITIONS, SHAREHOLDERS, EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
Title: Winners all round (Deming's customer/supplier point)
Journal: Manufacturing Breakthrough
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Nov/Dec 93 (2/6)
Page: 21 (5 pages)
Abstract: Discusses work undertaken by the customer/supplier research group of the British Deming Group, which considered four major interrelated ideas. Reports on management style, communication, alternative customer and supplier, and measurement, observing - in each case - what a good system should look like, what should be avoided and what comprises the path to a good system. As samplers of each aspect, recommends avoiding a top-down and hierarchical approach to communication, and developing a proactive strategy for listening to customers; contends that all this will produce a win- win environment for both customer and supplier relationships.
Subject: MANAGEMENT STYLES, DEMING, COMMUNICATIONS, BUYER-SELLER RELATIONSHIP
Database: M/W Marketing and Distribution Abstracts
Reference: YW97
Style: Practitioner
Title: Beauty parades (sales presentations)
Author(s): H.Alford
Journal: Transition
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Oct 93 (93/9)
Page: 20 (3 pages)
Abstract: Lists the problems faced by sales teams when they are invited to take part in a competitive sales presentation in which their presentation will be one of several heard, the `beauty parade' referred to in the title. Suggests ways of handling the situation from the basic research stage through to the actual presentation, all of which are designed to get the attention of the customer and to clinch the sale.
Subject: SALES TEAMS, PRESENTATIONS
Database: P/W/I Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV45
Style: Academic
Communication Counts
Introduction
What is Communication?
There are five essential questions to ask about our communication:
The basic purpose of communication is always one or more of the following four functions:
This means that the manager is fortunate in that he has a control mechanism available to him by which he can measure his progress.
Margerison and Mc Cann call this ''feedback'', and it is the reply or reaction from the audience which enables him to measure how well his message has been understood.
It is worth considering the planning process involved in good communication. The extent of this will vary enormously between the hours or days involved in preparing a major presentation, and the split second in preparing the answer to a verbal question. The principles and planning sequence should however, consciously or unconsciously, remain the same.
Planning communications
The planning sequence is the same as for any other activity, consisting of the three elements:
Descriptive adjectives
Some barriers are:
Barriers to good communication
Unfortunately it is rare that the audience does receive the message correctly due to many barriers and influences which spoil the message ''in flight''.
This is illustrated in below and represents almost any type of communication, but is best looked at as the analogy of radio.
In human terms, the information source is the speaker, who codes the message in language and terminology that he understands and communicates it by speaking, showing, feeling, smell and taste.
The signal is then distributed and disguised in transmission by influences of distractions, noise, interruptions and then decoded by the receiver.
The receiver is distracted by lack of concentration and interest, passed through the filters of background, beliefs and prejudice, and decodes the message according to his own interpretation of the language and terminology. It is therefore difficult for the original message to get through intact.
The second problem, to use the same analogy, is that the audience must first have the inclination to switch the radio on and adjust the wavelength of the receiver to that of the speaker. Thus, the audience must be motivated:
Furthermore, time rapidly erodes retention of information so that in a short time practically all is forgotten unless steps are taken to ensure that it is not lost.
Application questions
The Barriers to Communication
Good listening:
When you have read this section, imagine that you are carrying out an interview for a position in your company (perhaps for someone reporting directly to you). List the types of questions you would need to ask to ensure you are actively listening to the interviewee's response.
Readings:
Title: Project management as a language game
Author(s): G.Starling
Journal: Industrial Management & Data Systems
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: No 9 93
Page: 10 (9 pages)
Abstract: Provides a theoretical framework for discussing organisational communications; drawing detailed examples from project management at the Houston, Texas, space centre and in one of its contractors, Rockwell, classifies speech statements under the headings of assertions, declarations, commissives (intentions), directives and expressives (opinions/beliefs); from these, derives some basic rules or maxims, understanding of which could help individuals make a better job of communication.
Subject: PROJECT MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION
Database: P/W Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV64
Style: Academic
Title: An assessment of electronic meeting systems in a corporate setting
Author(s): M.Alavi
Journal: Information & Management
Country: (Netherlands)
Date/Vol: Oct 93 (25/4)
Page: 175 (8 pages)
Abstract: Explains the potential contribution of electronic meeting systems (EMS) to meetings support, covering such facilities as communication and problem solving on networked PCs; reports the methodology and findings of a study in a Fortune 500 company, which tested, in a live situation, the benefits claimed in previous research carried out under laboratory conditions. Finds the EMS do not replace verbal communications in a face- to-face meeting, rather they augment them; also EMS increase participants' concentration and enjoyment of the task. Claims to support laboratory research, but there is mixed opinion in the offerings read by your abstractor, and far more research is necessary before any conclusions can be drawn.
Subject: ELECTRONIC MEETING SYSTEMS, COMMUNICATIONS, PROBLEM SOLVING
Database: I Information Management and Technology Abstracts
Reference: YQ84
Style: Practitioner
Your Career
Introduction
In Career Development the important feature is the sequence of events characterised by stages. Attempts have been made to classify and describe these stages to help to identify the particular needs of support staff at various times in their lives. Obviously however, as individuals and cultures differ, any classification can only be regarded as illustrating a general trend. One example is given below:
Self Development Plans and Review
Your self development Plan is very personal to you. You should ensure it takes account of:
You may have changed your mind about ideas you wrote down in the log . This is part of the process of learning and developing and you should not feel discouraged.
Draw up a Personal Development Plan listing the need you felt, the action you took, persons involved and the cost, the deadline and the result i.e. How will you know if you met the objectives. Next draw up a Review of Actions in which you list in retrospect the action taken and further action to be taken in the future.
Reading
Title: A person-centred approach to dealing with resistance to change
Author(s): D.Coghlan
Journal: Leadership & Organization Development Journal
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 14 No 4 93
Page: 10 (5 pages)
Abstract: Defines resistance as the perceived behaviour of organization members who seem unwilling to accept or help implement an organizational change; it is used typically as a label by those who perceive themselves as agents of change, and not by those who are the targets. Identifies sources of such resistance, arising both from the environment and from the personalities of those affected by the change, and the types of response which individuals may mobilize. Discusses the value of a person-centred approach to dealing with issues of individual resistance to change which aims to create a climate that is facilitative and growth-promoting, in which the client (the resister) is able to understand and accept the need for change, through consultant counselling.
Subject: COUNSELLING, ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE, EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES
Database: T/P Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YR21
Style: Practitioner
Title: Is change as good as a pay-off? (redeployment)
Author(s): M.Thatcher
Journal: Personnel Management Plus
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Oct 93 (4/10)
Page: 24 (2 pages)
Abstract: Looks at an alternative to redundancy, that of redeployment, and reports on its use in three organizations; states that London Electricity, faced with a move out of retailing following privatization, chose redeployment for staff who had shown it considerable loyalty; notes counselling issues, pay protection and union objections. Finds that pay protection is more of an issue at Birmingham City Council; the authority had initially agreed to indefinite protection, but has now had to tell unions that it cannot afford to pay more than the rate for the job (the implication and reality being that most redeployees slip a few grades). Considers the situation at Camden Council, where those who do not wish redundancy are referred to its redeployment unit; jobs within one grade are offered and pay protection is currently indefinite.
Subject: REDUNDANCY, REDEPLOYMENT, COUNSELLING, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, ELECTRICITY INDUSTRY
Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YR89
Style: Academic
Title: Spouse counselling
Journal: Employee Counselling Today
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol: Vol 5 No 3 93
Page: 24 (4 pages)
Abstract: Reports on the tendency to include spouses or partners in counselling provided when staff are made redundant. Based on interviews in KPMG offices in which participants were asked to rank various aspects in order of usefulness, aims to give providers of advice an insight into how the service is received.
Subject: SPOUSES, COUNSELLING, REDUNDANCY
Database: T/P Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YX16
Style: Practitioner