ADA | Managerial Communications

· AD3 Level 1 ·

· MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATIONS ·

INDEX

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this module are to enable you to complement management in all aspects of communications inside and outside the organisation. There is a deliberate emphasis on personal communication as this is the area which can be most easily controlled by ourselves.

Throughout the resource it is useful to refer to Anbar readings. Here are a few of the most recent.

Title: An assessment of electronic meeting systems in a corporate setting
Author(s): M.Alavi
Journal: Information & Management
Country: (Netherlands)
Date/Vol.: Oct. 93 (25/4)
Page: 175 (8 pages)

Abstract: Explains the potential contribution of electronic meeting systems (EMS) to meetings support, covering such facilities as communication and problem solving on networked PCs; reports the methodology and findings of a study in a Fortune 500 company, which tested, in a live situation, the benefits claimed in previous research carried out under laboratory conditions. Finds the EMS do not replace verbal communications in a face- to-face meeting, rather they augment them; also EMS increase participants' concentration and enjoyment of the task. Claims to support laboratory research, but there is mixed opinion in the offerings read by your abstractor, and far more research is necessary before any conclusions can be drawn.

Subject: ELECTRONIC MEETING SYSTEMS, COMMUNICATIONS, PROBLEM SOLVING
Database: Information Management and Technology Abstracts
Reference: YQ84 Style: Practitioner

Title: Don't you sometimes wish you were better informed?
Author(s): D.Tourish, O.Hargie
Journal: Health Service Journal
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol.: 25 Nov. 93 (103/5380);
Page: 28 (2 pages)

Abstract: Considers that accurate assessment of current communicative performance within organizations can be a problem, which must be overcome in order to devise worthwhile improvements; introduces and defines the term `communications audit' and discusses its use within the NHS; advocates that communications audits can improve information flow within an organization, therefore empowering both managers and staff. Suggests that managers often overrate their effectiveness at communicating and that popular techniques such as`management by walking about' are not sufficient; offers a recollection of events in the implementation of the NHS audit. A novel idea that could create a solid foundation for management techniques such as TQM.

Subject: COMMUNICATIONS AUDIT, NHS, INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS

Database: P Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV44 Style: Practitioner
Title: Project management as a language game
Author(s): G.Starling
Journal: Industrial Management & Data Systems
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol.: No 9 93
Page: 10 (9 pages)

Abstract: Provides a theoretical framework for discussing organizational communications; drawing detailed examples from project management at the Houston, Texas, space centre and in one of its contractors, Rockwell, classifies speech statements under the headings of assertions, declarations, commissives (intentions), directives and expressives (opinions/beliefs); from these, derives some basic rules or maxims, understanding of which could help individuals make a better job of communication.

Subject: PROJECT MANAGEMENT, COMMUNICATION

Database: P/W Personnel and Training Abstracts
Reference: YV64 Style: Academic
Title: The widening loop: selling a 1990s deal to varied publics -
Author(s): R. C.Hubbell
Journal: Mergers & Acquisitions
Country: (USA)
Date/Vol.: Sept./Oct. 93 (28/2)
Page: 35 (6 pages)

Abstract: Using four case studies of anonymous companies, highlights crucial issues in pre- and post-acquisition communications that the author argues must be tackled in the 1990s; explains how in the first case - a major financial services company was preparing to announce its merger with a smaller company that enjoyed a leadership position in a niche market - the larger company defused anxiety over what would happen to the target company's caring, informal family-oriented tradition once it was subsumed into a new parent. In the second case, reveals the communications strategy of a large American company planning to acquire a large, privately owned European manufacturer, including video presentations to employees with appropriate language voice-overs, and, in the post-acquisition phase, setting up customer `roadshows'. Relates that, in the third case - merging companies which were leaders in functionally related, but essentially different, industries - the strategy focused on conveying to employees and shareholders the business logic and long-term investment appeal of combining. Reports in the final case the particular communications problems of the first publicly owned business in a $5 billion health-care service niche. Succinct, action-oriented report.

Subject: COMMUNICATIONS, ACQUISITIONS, SHAREHOLDERS, EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT

Database: T/P Top Management Abstracts
Reference: YX16 Style: Practitioner
Title: Winners all round (Deming's customer/supplier point)
Journal: Manufacturing Breakthrough
Country: (UK)
Date/Vol.: Nov./Dec. 93 (2/6)
Page: 21 (5 pages)

Abstract: Discusses work undertaken by the customer/supplierresearch group of the British Deming Group, which considered four major interrelated ideas. Reports on management style, communication, alternative customer and supplier, and measurement, observing - in each case - what a good system should look like, what should be avoided and what comprises the path to a good system. As samplers of each aspect, recommends avoiding a top-down and hierarchical approach to communication, and developing a proactive strategy for listening to customers; contends that all this will produce a win- win environment for both customer and supplier relationships.

Subject: MANAGEMENT STYLES, DEMING, COMMUNICATIONS, BUYER-SELLER RELATIONSHIP

Database: M/W Marketing and Distribution Abstracts
Reference: YW97 Style: Practitioner

Session 1

SELLING SKILLS AND HANDLING CONFLICT

OBJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

Counselling is a vital skill for managers and anyone who has responsibility for people's welfare. When someone has a problem it is tempting either to ignore it or to take a prescriptive approach - to impose solutions rather than to find the real cause of the problem and help the person find their way to resolve it.

But a manager, who can spot an employee's difficulties and help him or her before they become too serious, can prevent unsatisfactory work and unnecessary loss of good people. Skilful counselling will increase motivation and loyalty to the organisation by revealing its human face. For anyone involved in counselling, the ability to give real help to someone who is going through a worrying time provides deep satisfaction.

What is counselling?

Counselling concentrates on allowing the employee to work out his or her solutions. The style is what is known as ''non-directive'', simply because the person doing the counselling does not give advice. The employee is encouraged to talk through the problem and examine the key issues. Most of the time, people work out the best answers for themselves and just need the opportunity and a sympathetic ear to help.

Anyone can counsel anyone else but special behavioural skills are required on the part of the counsellor.

Personal problems vary in size. What is a trivial matter to one person can prove an overwhelming trauma to another. The easiest way to decide whether a problem exists is to establish whether there is a gap between the current situation and the desired one - even though the gap may be imagined.

How to counsel

It is important to remember that the Counsellee always owns the problem. This is because you will then be less likely to take over the problem and more likely to help the person with the problem to accept responsibility for it and for doing something about it.

Never interfere and impose your own solution. Personal problems cannot be delegated but must be faced up to and solved by the owner.

Use a non-directive style by questioning the counsellee and try to help him/her think things through and arrive at a solution independently. Seek ideas rather than propose them and listen reflectively. Never pass judgement or use the ''if I were you'' approach.

The four stages to counselling are:

After counselling, carry on as if it had never happened. Keep confidences to yourself but continue watching for signs of personal problems that are affecting people's performance.

ACTIVITIES

  1. Talk to someone in your personnel department who has been trained as a counsellor. Discuss the principles and pitfalls of counselling.

  2. Discuss with your manager examples of conflict that have occurred in your department/organisation. How were they dealt with? What was the outcome? Could there have been a better way of dealing with the conflict?

  3. Keep a log of actual situations involving conflict. Role play a counselling interview using these or imaginary problems.

  4. Recommend changes to reduce the risk of recurrence.

READING

Handling Conflict: Anbar AIS 021. Gives useful advice on how to diffuse potentially explosive situations.

Assertiveness: Anbar AIS 032. Distinguishes between assertiveness and aggression and explains why the former is more effective and less harmful than the latter.

Session 2

PRESENTATION SKILLS

INTRODUCTION

Increasingly we are called on at work to make presentations to groups, both large and small, in a variety of situations. We are very often judged by our performance on these occasions. How well do we get over our point of view to those to whom we are speaking?

What follows can be applied in a variety of speaking situations: making presentations, expressing views at meetings, explaining facts in interviews, briefing the team. The section includes guidelines on:

OBJECTIVES

Oral Presentation Skills

It is always important when making any kind of presentation to define the end result, but this is particularly important with regard to oral presentations. To put it another way, ask yourself what it is you want the audience to do as a result of the talk. It is possible that the output could be a change in opinion, an increase in the knowledge of your audience or even just entertainment value.

Structuring Your Talk:

  1. Identify headings and sub headings within your presentation by:

    • Looking at the subject matter through the eyes of your audience
    • Asking yourself "Will this piece of information help me to achieve my favoured output?". This is important as it helps to avoid waffle.

  2. Chose a starting point which your audience finds logical

  3. Move logically through the material

    • Tailor your presentation to the interests of your particular audience
    • Lay foundations first and build on them
    • Check that the presentation is readable and understandable through thorough practice.

  4. Enhance clarification using analogies, examples and illustrations

    • These should be both relevant to the audience and similar to the content of your presentation.

As with all presentations you should keep in mind the "AIDA" acronym: Attention; Interest; Desire and Action. Begin by grabbing the attention of your audience with a statement that is relevant to them. A common way of doing this is firstly to state the reason for your presentation, then to talk about the advantage(s) the audience can gain from listening and finally give the audience an idea of how your presentation will progress. For example " Ladies and Gentlemen, I am here today to tell you why our company is setting up a workers' council (Reason). this will mean giving you, our employees, more control of matters such as salaries, conditions of service and working hours (Advantage). I'll start by telling you how similar councils are composed and then tell you of some lessons I believe we can learn from those already operating".

Keep the interest levels of your audience high (this can be enhanced By the use of Visual Aids) and give them a desire to take action as a result of your presentation. If you have fully rehearsed your presentation and you are happy with environmental factors such as acoustics and visual aids, there is every reason for you to have total confidence. If you project the image of a well briefed and authoritative figure, your audience will have greater confidence in you and your message will be more effective. You can practice these skills using the activities at the end of this section.

There must always be a good reason why you wish to make a presentation and it is usually either to convince the audience of a particular point of view, to increase their knowledge or to entertain them. if you know the reason and the subject, a framework and style will naturally follow. Once you have decided why and how you are going to communicate your information it is important to give your audience an incentive to listen. The best way to do this is to stress the personal benefits contained in the information. For example, a three hour talk on relocation will not interest the majority of your audience. However, the same talk beginning "Don't you just hate being stuck in the rush-hour traffic around here..." will make the connection between your presentation and tangible individual benefits.

Of course, the most important component of a presentation is your voice. Even the most confident speaker treats her voice with respect just as any technician would spend plenty of time checking tone and levels before allowing their equipment to be used. Breath control is vital to any successful oral presentation. Deep breaths before the speech help the speaker to calm themselves and so lessen the effects of the adrenaline which tends to raise the pitch of voices. A steady rate of breathing will also help you to avoid the temptation to swallow the ends of your words.

Voice projection is more effective and less strenuous than shouting and is used by professional actors to great effect. This too involves greater breathing control and it can be mastered in a fairly short space of time. Another important facet of the voice is its ability to change pitch and tone and so add colour to the information you are presenting. Both projection and tone variance can be practice by taking the line " The football match was very exciting" and saying it firstly with surprise, then with irony, then with grief and finally with anger. The key is to over-act. Remember Shakespeare's words "All the world's a stage", well presentations are the opening night on Broadway!

Finally, just before the curtain rises, here are a couple of hints for the actual speaking part. Punctuation was invented so people could see meanings that weren't revealed by words alone. The disadvantages of oral presentations is that people can't see the punctuation and this can lead to misunderstandings. An effective way of overcoming this problem is to pause at the time when there would normally be punctuation marks. Another useful hint for oral presentations is to use questions that come from the audience. Treat them as genuine ( whether they were meant that way or not) and answer them according to the following criteria:

  1. Provide genuine questions with answers if you can
  2. Summarise a point to give clarification if someone claims not to understand. If they persist, see them after the presentation.
  3. Try not to get bogged down in opinionated discussion. Stick to facts if you can.
  4. If someone simply heckles you, ask them for more details and don't go down to their level. Remember, it is they who have chosen to listen to you.

Questions can allow you to expand on points as well as adding interest to the proceedings. They are not a wholly negative phenomenon and you can use them for your advantage.

Planning and preparation

''To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail''. This is probably more true of making presentations than any other activity. The biggest problem we face when speaking to groups is fear and this is largely fear of the unknown. We can reduce fear by reducing the area of the unknown. Break the unknown down into six areas:

Why? Deciding the objective

Why are you making this presentation? Is it to:

At work, more often than not, the objective will be some form of persuasion. You will want the audience to:

Make your objective as full and precise as you can. Write it down so that:

Who? Researching the audience

Find out all you can about the people to whom you will be presenting. The audience or group to whom you are talking are the most important people in the whole exercise. This is what you should know about them:

Answers to these questions will determine the material used and the approach to the talk. You have a duty to those who listen to you to make sure your talk is pitched at the right level for them.

Where? Preparing the environment

Answers to these questions will determine the material used and the approach to the talk. You have a duty to those who listen to you to make sure your talk is pitched at the right level for them.

When? Timing

Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk.

Time of day can affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard section in training circles, when audiences will feel more like a nap than listening to a talk. The audience may have already sat through several other speakers. How can you make sure they are interested and will listen to what you say?

Knowing how long you have got and sticking to it is crucial to good talks. This means practising to see whether you have the right amount of material. Most people find that, if they practise in their head, the actual talk will take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids also adds to the time. Remember that it is better to finish slightly early than to overrun.

What? Preparing the material

Make a note of all the information, illustrations and arguments you could possibly need. A useful method for doing this is by making pattern notes or a mind map. By forming an interrelated pattern notes enable the brain to relate to information far more naturally and efficiently than a list.

Once you have recorded all your immediate ideas, put them on one side for a while. When you return to the notes, you may have thought of other ideas to add. Group common themes or ideas together. If the logical ordering of points was not obvious at first, after a break you can see how it all fits together.

Keep the number of points to a minimum. In a 45 minutes talk do not try to make more than seven main points. This may not seem very many, but if you are to leave the audience with a clear picture of what you have said, you cannot expect them to remember much more than that.

Concentrate on writing the middle of the talk first. Selecting the material you are going to use should be dictated by:

Structure

The start

Every presentation requires some sort of preface. Exactly what elements it should contain will obviously depend on circumstances. The preface has a double value - it establishes certain important facts, and it also helps to ease you into your relationship with the audience by means of ''neutral'' material that they can all accept and agree with. There are five elements to a full preface: a single sentence may be enough for each:

Welcoming courtesies; simply thanking people for giving up time and hoping they will feel it is well spent.

Self-identification; your name and job, your background if relevant and any details about colleagues who are with you.

The objective; what you are proposing to explain, suggest or demonstrate at this presentation. This has to be angled towards the benefits they can expect from what you are presenting. Everything should be presented in terms of their interest, not yours.

The agenda; how long the presentation will last, whether it will be in sections, whether it includes a film or demonstration.

Practical details; let the audience know whether you prefer questions during the presentation or at the end, whether there will be breaks for refreshments, whether hand-outs are available.

The middle

All presentations designed to persuade or influence have the same structure - situation, complication, recommendation.

Situation; put the audience in the picture by outlining the present situation: the way orders are processed, demand for certain products has been changing, the dollar fluctuating. Whatever the purpose of your presentation, it is essential that everyone should start with the same knowledge, and important that you should demonstrate to them all that you know the situation and background.

Complication; this is where you introduce the need for change by showing why the present situation cannot continue or why it would be unwise to continue it. Mistakes occurring, competitors gaining, prices rising - there must be some significant change or danger or opportunity or you would not be making the presentation.

Recommendation; the other two sections may be brief: this one forms the bulk of the presentation. It may include evaluating alternatives, meeting objections, providing evidence, and quoting examples.

The end

The closing section of your talk should be just that. It should be conclusive and not just drift to a halt.

When working out your ending, go back to the original intention. It is the objective of the presentation that dictates the ending and you will normally include:

A summary of the salient facts and arguments and a reprise of the key visuals.

A recommendation of a course of action.

A proposal for the next step, if the recommendation is accepted, with target dates.

A description of the supporting literature (if any) which you are now distributing.

Thanks for patient attention, etc.

Invitation to ask questions.

When planning your structure, again think yourself into the minds of your audience. What anxieties can you relieve, what needs can you identify and satisfy? That will guide you to an introduction, something to make them sit up and think, ''Yes, that really is our problem''. Following on from that you can arrange your facts and arguments into the best order - best for their understanding and also best for persuasion.

Paragraph your talk so that your audience knows where you have got to in your presentation and where you are going. Summarise to round off one section before going on to another.

Relegate detail, especially technical detail, to hand-outs. These should be distributed after the talk.

Notes

Put notes on cards. They do not shake as much as sheets of paper if you are nervous and, since they are smaller, they encourage you to use key words rather than writing down complete sentences.

Use your own handwriting, written large. Write timings on the cards and messages to yourself with different coloured pens, e.g. ''slow down'', or ''use visual aid here''.

Tag cards together, but always number them in case they come apart.

Visual aids

When planning a presentation, ask yourself, ''Do I need any visuals?'' not ''What visuals do I require?'' There are many disadvantages of using visual aids:

However, it remains true that a picture is worth a thousand words. Most presentations are improved, and many are transformed, by a good use of visuals. They:

There are two basic rules:

  1. A visual must be necessary.
  2. It must be visual.

The most common visual aids are: flip charts, slides (either for overhead projector or slide projector), films, exhibits, and models.

Plan the use of visual aids to complement your talk. However, never rely on them completely. Always be prepared for the worst. If the equipment breaks down, you must be able to talk without the visual aids.

Keep them simple. If using slides, it is essential to simplify the information you are presenting. Columns of figures will not add anything at all, but if the information is turned into a simple graph or bar chart, the visual impact will be much more effective. Do not put more words on a slide than you would on a T-shirt.

Give time for the audience to look at slides. Do not talk and show slides at the same time. When you have moved on from the topic illustrated by the slide take it off. Do not leave the audience looking at something that does not relate to what you are saying.

Limit the number of visual aids to be used. Do not use them for the sake of it and do not use too many different types. For example, stick to a flip chart and overhead projector, or just use a slide projector. Not everything in the same presentation.

Talk to the group. Do not talk to the screen, flip chart or slide. Stay facing the audience. Do not point to the screen with your arms. If you want to highlight particular points, use a pointer with a slide projector. With an overhead projector use a pencil or pointer on the projector itself, not the screen.

Make them large and punchy. Keep slides simple and punchy. If using a flip chart, write large using a black pen. Blue, red and green are quite difficult to see at a distance. Make sure everyone in the room is going to be able to see your visual aids.

They are not cue cards. Do not depend on your visuals to be a cue card. Use notes if you do not know your presentation well enough to rely on your memory. Visuals are to help your audience, not you.

Check any equipment before you start your talk. Practise so you are familiar with how the equipment works. Check the blinds and lights in the room if you need to darken it. Always be prepared for the worst and have extra bulbs and extension leads available.

Be professional. Using visual aids can be enormously useful in helping to put over what cannot be said by words. But if slides are poorly produced they will have exactly the opposite effect and will confuse the audience.'

Delivery

Only practice can make you a good speaker. Good delivery, apart from a few small (but important) points of technique, is a question not of acquiring skills but of removing obstacles.

Most people speak well enough round a table with a group of friends or colleagues: learning to speak in public is little more than learning to retain that ability when standing up in front of ten or 20 or 500 people you do not know. This means learning to remove the inhibitions that stop you being your normal, natural, friendly self once you get up on your feet.

Get the audience on your side right from the start by making some remark that makes it clear that you are not setting yourself up above them but are enlisting their sympathetic indulgence, rather than by risking stimulating a critical resentment.

It is also important to think about how you sound and look.

ACTIVITIES

  1. List occasions when presentation techniques would have been useful to you to help put your message across.
  2. Write an outline talk using the techniques described to present your case on an issue currently facing you at work.
  3. Anticipate any possible opposition to your ideas. What arguments can you use to counter these?
  4. Deliver your talk to a group of colleagues and ask them to comment and question you.

Exercise

Drafting a speech

Draft a speech for your manager to make at the next departmental gathering. Include recommendations on visual aids and think through some likely questions department members would ask.

READING

Effective Communications, Abby Day (ed.), MCB University Press 1987, ISBN 0 8676 2959.
Here's looking at you (presentation techniques)
K.Marsdon
Marketing Business (UK), Nov. 92 (No 15): p. 35 (5 pages)

Charts developments in presentation techniques, with particular emphasis on using PCs and specialized software. The two linked articles are riddled with anagrams and AV jargon, but contain useful information.

PRESENTATIONS, VISUAL AIDS, PCS, COMPUTER SOFTWARE

M/I Marketing and Distribution Abstracts
WR79-Practitioner
How to give a presentation
M.Hornby
Training & Development (UK), Apr. 92 (10/4): p. 19 (4 pages)

Discusses the principal aspects of effective presentation - preparation, covering content, subject introduction and conclusion; planning illustrations to support the subject presentation, indicating dos and don'ts for using overhead projectors and flipcharts; and practice. Offers suggestions for presentation performance, body language and handling questions from the floor.

PRESENTATIONS, OVERHEAD PROJECTORS, FLIPCHARTS, BODY LANGUAGE

P/M Personnel and Training Abstracts
VM58
How to use visual aids
A.Fowler
Personnel Management Plus (UK), Sep. 91 (2/9): p. 20 (2 pages)

Asserts that it is dangerous to assume that almost any form of visual aid will adequately support oral presentations; gives examples of ways that carefully-chosen visual aids - either prepared material shown at planned points of a presentation, or visuals written or drawn spontaneously as a presentation progresses - can effectively hold an audience's attention. Touches upon the limitations of visual aids and the dangers of faulty presentation; surveys the main choices for selecting the most appropriate aids, such as chalkboards, flip charts, overhead projectors and slide projectors. Warns that the more sophisticated the method, the greater risk that the presentation will stand or fall on the equipment functioning properly.

VISUAL AIDS, PRESENTATIONS, FLIPCHARTS, OVERHEAD PROJECTORS

P Personnel and Training Abstracts
TD29
Making the case for electronic presentation
N.Purdom
Audio Visual (UK), Mar. 93: p. 25 (3 pages)

Reminds us that it is no longer necessary to convert presentations created on the PC or Mac to OHP transparency or slide for display because the technology exists to stay electronic via the LCD panel, the CRT projector or the LCD projector; reviews costs and benefits of these options and alternative ways of controlling the presentation itself, e.g. automatically or by using a computer keyboard manually; refers to extensions of the technology into portable presentations.

PCS, PRESENTATIONS, AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS, OVERHEAD PROJECTORS

P/I Personnel and Training Abstracts
XE20-Practitioner
Presentation skills
N. A.Mendes
Training & Development (UK), Jul. 92 (10/7): p. 25 (1 pages)

Argues that there is nothing theatrical about a presentation, which - to be offensive - should be the natural extension of the person making it, and which demands careful preparation, attention to detail and rehearsal. Outlines the principles of presentation skills training, and presents guidelines for presentation ethics and preparation.

PRESENTATIONS, SKILLS, TRAINING

P/M Personnel and Training Abstracts
VY86
Speak for yourself
B.Voss
Sales & Marketing Management (USA), Jan 92 (144/1): p. 77 (6 pages)

Reminds readers of the difference between a presentation and a speech, seen as important because marketing people are used to presentation giving, but not to speech making. Follows this with sensible but not original advice on preparation and delivery. Rather distractingly provides details of some dining awards - your guess is as good as your abstractor's as to why!

PRESENTATIONS, SPEECH MAKING

P/M Personnel and Training Abstracts
VC65
Video presentations for auditors
M.Fleming
Internal Auditor (USA), Oct. 91 (48/5): p. 50 (5 pages)

Advocates the showing of video versions of audit reports by (not to) internal auditors. The author is 'performance audit manager' in the office of the Arizona Auditor General, where it was found that the preparation of videos to be shown to legislators was an effective (additional) means of getting recipients to take notice of audit findings. Reports on the practical aspects of video preparation, costs involved and time spent. A novel idea that seems to make sense.

VIDEO, PRESENTATIONS, INTERNAL AUDIT

A Accounting and Finance Abstracts
TG56

Session 3

MEETINGS: CHAIRING AND SUPPORTING

OBJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

Meetings are any occasion when a group of people come together to share ideas and experiences. This section will cover:

What is a meeting?

Meetings may differ in size, composition, organisation and purpose, but all meetings:

Meetings can become an end in themselves. This is particularly true of regular meetings which take place just because they always have done. It is essential that there is some worthwhile business to discuss. Therefore the purpose must be clear and relevant.

The purpose can be:

Chairperson's responsibilities

These include:

In many instances the secretary of a committee or meeting will take responsibility for organising the date, time and place of the meeting. The secretary may also draw up and circulate the agenda and write and distribute the minutes. For maximum efficiency there needs to be some kind of consultation between the chairman and secretary on the agenda and minutes.

Agenda

Decide on topics to be included. Check with those attending to see if they have any items they wish to include.

Do not be vague or too brief:

Explain each item in full, attaching relevant papers.

Inform individuals who will be needed to contribute on particular items.

Avoid ''Matters Arising''. Have a separate item for each or circulate a secretary's report with the agenda.

Omit ''Any other Business''. Instead, if time permits, have an unstructured open discussion after the official close of the meeting.

Be logical. Determine sequence by:

Urgency of the items.

Length of time each item will take.

Mark items for ''information'', ''discussion'', ''decision''.

Timing

Actual time available for the meeting will be determined by the other activities and commitments of those attending. Lengthy meetings tend to be demotivating. Maximum of two hours is a good guide. Consider time of day carefully.

Amount of time to be spent on each item will be determined by amount of time available for the whole meeting. Some items may have to be left off the agenda altogether. Work out a rough plan of how much time is available for each item and put this on the agenda itself to act as a guide.

Circulate the agenda in good time before the meeting, especially when papers are attached.

Minutes

Help the minute taker by summarising each main point, decision or conclusion.

Ensure that they are drafted as soon as possible after the meeting.

Any action to be taken should be typed in a prominent place after each item - with the name of the person responsible by its side. Otherwise, in general, individual contributions should not be attributed to any member.

Ensure that the minutes are not altered in any way after being checked by the chairperson.

Minutes of committee meetings

We take minutes to fulfil three functions: constitutional, executive and progressive.

Constitutional - once approved and signed the minutes become the authoritative record of the proceedings. At the same time they provide the continuous historical narrative of the Committee's activities.

Executive - something has been decided. Someone has to implement the decisions. The minutes become the blueprint and authority for action.

Progressive - the minutes provide the best basis for an evolving policy. They must therefore enable the Committee to take up the thread from the point reached at the end of the last meeting.

Minutes must:

Accuracy

In meeting this fundamental requirement, you may encounter two difficulties:

  1. Interpretation. You must be completely in step with the evolving trend of opinion. If you are in doubt about any significant point, or about any aspect of a decision, ask for clarification and, if necessary, draft the minute on the spot.

  2. Note-taking. Styles vary, but there are five main points:

Notes must be highly selective. Learn to distinguish between the significant and the ephemeral while it is being said. Knowledge of the subject - and of the speakers - will soon sharpen your judgement.

Record the names of the main contributors. You probably will not include them in the minutes but it is helpful in case a query does arise after the meeting.

No doubt you will evolve your own shorthand. This is helpful, so long as you remember what the abbreviations mean.

Boldly indicate each topic by a clear heading. Leave wide margins and allow plenty of space between lines and between different topics.

Use paper of adequate size. A pad of ruled A4 is particularly suitable; but whatever your choice, use the same size throughout for ease of handling and filing.

Draft the minutes as soon as possible after the meeting while events are still fresh in your mind, and obtain the chairperson's approval of the draft before having it finally typed for circulation to the members. Retain your notes until the minutes have been approved and signed.

Brevity

The accurate but uncritical production of what was said may be safe, but it is also tedious and inefficient. Minutes are needed:

The hallmark of good minuting is the ability to give a comprehensive and meaningful account of the meeting - not only to the persons who were present, but also to those who were not. The minutes must also stand the test of time, and must remain meaningful even when the detailed circumstances of the meeting have been forgotten.

Sometimes it may be appropriate to include an account of recommendations which were not adopted, together with the reasons for their rejection. It may even be necessary, for the sake of greater clarity, to include background information which, because it was taken for granted by all those present, figured in the discussion only by implication.

When minuting a discussion based on a background paper, it is helpful to append the paper to the minutes or to summarise its contents.

Minute-writing is a perpetual conflict between accuracy, brevity and clarity. It calls for judgement, knowledge and integrity and imposes a great responsibility on you.

Clarity

  1. Style. Remember that you are writing a document with a strictly limited objective - to provide a factual record of the meeting. Keep your:

    • Sentences short.
    • Words simple.
    • Expression direct and to the point.
    • Meaning clear and capable of only one interpretation.

  2. Names. The attribution of views to individuals in the minutes is, on balance, undesirable. It also provides potential grounds for complaint by individuals who may feel that their views have not been adequately reported, or that their names appear less frequently than they consider justified by the number of their interventions. Exceptions to this practice, such as reports and special contributions by individuals, will be obvious.

  3. Layout:

Attendance record. Two methods:

Names simply listed under ''Present'' and ''Apologies for absence''. The drawback of this method is that it makes no provision for those members who were absent but did not send apologies. Nor does it give an overall view of the attendance record as a whole.

All members are listed, but those present are distinguished by some typographical device, such as printing their names in capital letters. If desired, a further sign can be added to indicate those of the absent members who sent apologies.

Numbering. Each minute should be numbered consecutively from the first meeting onwards. In some cases it may be more convenient to begin each set of minutes, or each year, with 1. Whatever method is used, the number should always be used when referring to a Committee Minute.

Resolutions. Decisions should stand out prominently. Not all topics on which agreement is reached have to be endowed with the dignity of a Resolution. They may, for instance, be in the form of a suggestion which is not mandatory. For example ''It was agreed that...''

Follow up action. When sending out the minutes, add a note to those members who are required to take some action, or underline the relevant sections for their special attention. If a report is required, inform members by what date it should reach you for circulation to the Committee.

Skills of chairing

As chairperson you should ensure that everyone participates in the meeting and that particular members do not dominate. This can be achieved in the following ways.

Processing the discussion

Be ready to welcome the members and open the meeting in a friendly manner. This will help to create the right atmosphere. Inspire confidence and command respect by demonstrating that you consider the meeting important, have planned and prepared for it and know how to run it. Flexibility may be required to adapt plans to suit the needs of the members.

Explain what the meeting is for, what is known, what is required and how you are going to tackle it.

Separate facts from opinion by:

Draw out the silent members of the group and control the talkative. Prevent private discussion in splinter groups. Avoid participating too much yourself.

At the end of the meeting establish what has been achieved and emphasise the positive aspects. Make a final summary confirming the conclusions reached, stressing action and who is to take it.

Making statements

An opening statement is necessary to clarify the purpose and objectives of the meeting and define the terms and scope of the discussion. A positive start gives direction to the group.

During the meeting, feed in information where necessary and make statements of fact to clarify misunderstandings.

Asking questions

Ask questions to ensure that there is maximum relevant participation. The following types are useful:

Opening questions. These should:

Start with how, where, when, why, what or who, to avoid a ''yes'' or ''no'' reply.

Point the meeting in the right direction, e.g. what experience do members have of dealing with this problem?

Overhead questions - a question addressed to the group as a whole. This has the advantage of not embarrassing individual members who may be unprepared or unable to answer, and engaging the attention of all members, so there is a good chance someone will reply. An overhead question is useful as an opening question, or to re-focus irrelevant discussion, e.g. what remedies for this situation have we found?

Direct questions - a question addressed to a particular individual. This can be used for a variety of purposes: to bring in a person with special knowledge; in dealing with the retiring, talkative and other problem individuals; to help the meeting when flagging, by asking the resourceful or talkative member his or her opinion; to speed up the pace of the meeting, e.g. Ms A, what is your department's policy on this?

Re-directed questions - to avoid the meeting moving back and forth between individual members and the leader, statements and questions raised by one member can be passed to another for comment. It can also be used as a link

to co-ordinate a number of points and thus ensure continuity of ideas, e.g. Mr B, how do you think Ms A's policy would work in your department?

Relay questions - a question put to the chairperson can be relayed to members for reply. This is useful when you do not want to express your own views, get involved in an argument or influence the conclusions of the group, e.g. That's a good question. How did the rest of you deal with that problem?

Reverse questions - the person posing the question is asked to answer it. This can be used to encourage him or her to think again or because he/she is known to have views which should be expressed, e.g. I know you have considerable experience of that subject. May we hear what you think? or I was about to ask you the same question - what do you think?

Summarising

The use of interim and final summaries is one of the most powerful skills available to you at a meeting.

Interim summaries serve to:

A final summary establishes the group's conclusions, points to action and gives members a sense of what has been achieved.

Put both interim and final summaries to the members for their agreement. This practice will also help the minute-taker and cut down on unnecessary argument about the accuracy of the minutes.

Duties and responsibilities of the members

However efficient and skilful the chairperson may be, he/she cannot achieve the objectives of any meeting by him/herself. A meeting, by its very nature, is a co-operative effort, and therefore the part played by the members is very important to its success. Members should:

  1. Attend regularly and punctually - whether they are appointed, elected, or have volunteered, having accepted the position they are under an obligation to attend as and when required.

  2. Brief themselves - by studying the agenda, minutes, or other material sent to them before the meeting, and if necessary acquiring further information on the subject(s), so that they are prepared to make an informed contribution to the discussion.

  3. Participate - by giving the meeting the benefit of their ideas and experience, and by listening to, understanding, and respecting the views of other members, even when they do not agree with them.

  4. Support the chair - by recognising and accepting the authority of the ''chair'', whatever their personal opinion of the individual in it, and by assisting the task of the chairperson, for example by:

    • Knowing the rules and keeping to them.
    • Responding with helpful, relevant contributions.
    • Helping to resolve conflicts, rather than generating them.
    • Clarifying issues, rather than confusing them.
    • Offering any specialised knowledge or skills.

  5. Support other members by:

    • Not ''hogging'' the discussion and preventing others from speaking.
    • Helping less able or experienced members to make their contributions.
    • Avoiding personal feuds.
    • Co-operating with other members to achieve the objectives of the meeting.

  6. Support the objective of the meeting - by recognising that they are bound by the conclusions of the meeting, even if, in discussion, they have put an opposing view. (Except on occasions when, on grounds of ''conscientious objection'', they have registered dissent.)

Duties and responsibilities of the secretary

  1. To ensure efficient organisation and administration of the meeting. Your main function is to service and support the chairperson and members.

  2. To assist the chairperson in planning and preparation - by agreeing date, time, place, membership, arrangement of agenda, etc.

  3. To send out notice of meeting, including agenda/programme to all those invited to attend. Minutes of previous meeting should be attached if these have not already been circulated, together with any other relevant documents or correspondence.

  4. To brief the chairperson on all items on the agenda/programme and any action the chairperson has to take. To discuss any presentation material required and help with the preparation.

  5. To ensure that the room to be used for the meeting is available at the time and on the date required, and reserve it. To arrange for refreshments to be served at a suitable time, if necessary.

  6. To attend regularly and punctually. You should arrive early to check the arrangements and deal with last minute queries raised by the chair, speakers or members.

  7. To act as the chairperson's right hand. You must be an authority on the constitution, rules, or standing orders; be ready to give advice and guidance if required and ensure that all necessary documents are available. (In formal meetings the secretary has a number of statutory duties, e.g. reads the notice of the meeting, agenda, minutes of previous meeting, matters arising from minutes, correspondence, reports, etc., and makes announcements.)

  8. To take notes from which you compile the minutes. You must record motions, amendments and resolutions verbatim, and may be asked to draft a motion, amendment, or resolution where the intention is clear but the wording is not. Separate notes should be made of any specific actions to be undertaken by those present.

  9. To follow up the meeting. You draft the minutes and reports and get them approved by the chairperson. You also send reminders to members charged with specific jobs to do, and deal with any other consequential matters as promptly as possible after the meeting.

  10. To know the members. You should make yourself available to inform or advise the members, but remain impartial and tactful in your dealings with them.

ACTIVITIES

  1. The next time your manager is absent, chair the departmental meeting.
  2. Obtain a copy of some formal board minutes (preferably from your own organisation). Study them. What improvements could you make? How would you follow up action required?
  3. Draw up a ''job description'' for the chairperson, secretary and members of an important committee which meets regularly within your organisation.
  4. Devise a method of ensuring that people carry out what they are asked to do at meetings.
  5. List all the meetings with which you and your manager are involved. Define the purpose of each and draw up a typical agenda. Do not forget to include time limits of each item, purpose of each item and background information.
  6. Form a secretaries' network in your organisation. Take it in turns to chair the meetings and lead discussion. Produce one action point from each meeting and ensure it is carried out.

READINGS

Communicating assertively

A. P. P.Loftus
Industrial and Commercial Training (UK), Vol. 24 No 2 92: p. iv (3 pages)

Defines the concept of assertiveness, and labels behaviour as either passive, aggressive, or assertive. Discusses examples of each, and comes down in favour of assertiveness; but points out that it is better not to be assertive, when e.g. the other person is drunk, drugged, or violent, and in stated other circumstances (which include 'when one does not feel like being assertive').

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS, ASSERTIVENESS P Personnel and Training Abstracts
VF40

Human relationships at work in organizations

P.Clarkson, P.Shaw
Management Education and Development (UK),
Spring 92 (23/1): p. 18 (12 pages)

Identifies five aspects of relationship at work - the unfinished relationship, the work alliance, and the developmental, personal and transpersonal relationships; discusses the differences between them, and summarizes their contribution to the organization, the ways they may be dysfunctional, and the human motivational needs that each can satisfy. Examines the common training needs linked to these different aspects, and the range of counselling and consulting skills and services which can support the functioning of this network of relationship.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS, MOTIVATION, TRAINING, COUNSELLING P Personnel and Training Abstracts

Session 4

BUSINESS WRITING

OBJECTIVES

  1. To think creatively.
  2. To structure reports.
  3. To use clear, concise language to express thoughts in writing.

For most of us the transfer of words on to paper means a lot of hard work; and often there is no certainty that the end product will justify this time and effort spent on it. The increasing emphasis on communication within an organisation has led to a great proliferation of paperwork. The administrator with these growing demands easily loses sight of the fact that writing is as essential as production levels. This section tries to demonstrate how to communicate effectively through writing, particularly reports, using clear, concise language to get the message across.

Thinking creatively

Writing is a thinking problem. But it is better to have a businesslike approach than to wait for inspiration. The mind is a special kind of filing system where the filing is done in the subconscious section, locked away and the right key needed to get it out again.

It is no use having a lot of knowledge if one cannot inter-relate it. It is no use having little knowledge but many impractical ideas. It is no use having ideas without knowing how we produced them.

Judgement is the weighing up of a situation that now exists and comparing it with similar situations that have existed in the past. It involves inspecting, analysing, classifying and filing.

Imagination - all new ideas are built up by forming fresh combinations of the raw material already filed in the mind. Ability to have new ideas depends on the amount of information stored away, the rate at which you can get at it to compare it and the number of different ways you can relate it to other items.

Define the problem to be solved. Often answers are immediately obvious.

Find out relevant facts; otherwise your ideas may be divorced from reality.

Analyse the problem and what you know about it. Write a statement of the problem. With this you can check knowledge, memory and sift information.

Put your information into action by asking yourself questions. A check-list of questions is useful, e.g.

Free association of ideas can give inspiration. One thought leads to another. Concentrate first on one aspect of the problem, then let mind wander. When an idea comes, trace it back to its origin; another idea may come on the way.

Sleep on it. If an idea will not come, turn to something else. Your subconscious may work it out while you sleep, allowing a fresh start next day.

Apply critical judgement. Never let up until your ideas are watertight and you have foreseen as many objections as you possibly can and provided the appropriate answers to them.

Exercise in ideas. Practise your imagination for fun in areas where you are not a specialist.

Do not cling too closely to one idea. Do not be too possessive about your ideas either. The more you have, the more you can afford to give away.

Notes and mind maps

As well as serving as an information storage system, efficient notes allow you to encode the information, organise it, make associations and inferences, and consciously think about what is significant, thereby increasing the depth of processing.

The key words in any sentence are the words that hold most of the information content. They are the words that are remembered, and when recalled they ''unlock'' the meaning again. Key words are usually nouns and verbs. They are concrete and specific, and generate strong images.

The more key words there are in notes, the more useful they are and the better they are remembered. Traditional notes, in neat linear sentences, waste space, waste time in recording and reviewing, disguise and dissociate the key words. They aid forgetfulness rather than memory.

The brain does not generally work in a linear step-by-step manner but processes many streams of information at once, making numerous associations and connections as it goes. Mind maps reflect this nature of the brain and are therefore an excellent interface between the brain and the outside world.

To make a mind map, start in the centre of the paper with the major idea and work outwards in all directions, producing a growing and organised structure composed of key words and images.

In making mind maps:

Mind maps can be used in any situation where you want to write or speak. They have advantages over ordinary notes in being:

A report is a formal statement of the results of an investigation, or of any matter on which definite information is required, made by some person or body instructed or required to do so. The function of a report can be to:

The report is a vital link in the chain of action, necessary to the successful functioning of any organisation.

Planning is essential. Define your subject, purpose and terms of reference. Identify your readers and keep them constantly in mind while writing. Remember that report writing is a continuous process of decision making.

Collect your material, then select what you need and arrange it in the best order. The information you gather will lead to your conclusions and recommendations. Decide on these now. Also decide what illustrations, diagrams, graphs, etc. you will need.

Give form and shape to the report to enable the reader to digest it:

Concentrate on writing the body of the report - introduction, findings, conclusions, recommendations - before dealing with other sections. The recommendations should offer a solution to any problem, or fulfil any requirements implied in the terms of reference. They should persuade the reader that the action recommended is essential and should convince him/her that such action is practical and possible.

Watch your language. Be accurate, brief and clear. Keep sentences short and simple. Punctuate and paragraph for meaning. Remember that you are writing to communicate not to mystify or impress.

Presentation - make sure it looks good to the reader. Make reading easy with plenty of space, attractive layout with signposts such as clear numbering to guide the reader.

Type a draft first and read it carefully. Does it say what you mean to say? Is everything there? Re-type, check typescript for errors, facts and figures, spelling, punctuation. Check numbering, referencing. Read again finally before submitting.

Language and style

  1. Remember that you are writing to communicate, not to mystify or impress:

    • You have a specific purpose in mind. Focus on this; it will help you keep to the point.
    • You have a definite reader. Keep him in mind; direct what you have to say to him. It establishes the right tone, and holds your choice of words nearer to the spoken word. ''Speak'' to this person rather than write for the great unknown.

  2. Be accurate. Check that you are using the right word for the right job. Be sure that it really does say what you mean it to.

  3. Be brief. Use the shortest route to get to where you are going, e.g.

    not for the reason that... but because...
    not according as to whether... but if...
    not in the event that... but if...

  4. Be clear. To be clear your writing must be definite. It must not allow room for ambiguity or wrong assumptions. This means you must know precisely what you want to say, i.e. know the facts, and not hide lack of knowledge behind vague words. Phrases like: ''in the region of'', ''around about'', ''a certain amount of''. ''some'', are misleading. Writing depends on the precise word to communicate its message clearly.

  5. Be simple. Use the short word rather than the long. Do not ''endeavour to ascertain'', try to find out. Would you say ''utilise'', ''facilitate'', ''necessitate'' and so on? If not, think twice before writing them.

  6. Be active. The passive voice is vague, imprecise, and leads to confusion. By using it the writer can often avoid responsibility for a definite statement of who did what and to whom. It is indeed deliberately used for just this reason. It is also wordy and cumbersome.

  7. Be personal. You have a personal role in compiling your report. Do not be afraid to accept responsibility for this - even to the extent of using ''I'' when it seems appropriate.

  8. Be concrete. Talk in practical terms, using examples rather than employing abstract theory. In writing we should not produce on the page a mental conception or idea of what we are talking about rather than a ''concrete'' or definite picture.

  9. Avoid jargon. Focus on your reader. If the report is for circulation to fellow experts, there is no problem. If it is to go primarily to a non-specialist group, then you should take care to keep the technical language to a minimum. Consider providing a glossary.

  10. Avoid clichés. The catch-phrase of the moment; the trendy words coined by the media; or any saying that has lost its edge through over-use. You can do better with words of your choosing to express your ideas.

  11. Sentences. Keep them short; keep them simple. Short sentences mean easy going. Long complex sentences slow the reader down. They also impede his understanding and dull his memory. If your sentences average more than 20 words, you are making foggy weather for your reader. If they are also of an over-complex structure, you are making matters worse. Short, simple sentences avoid the ambiguity and misunderstanding caused by misplaced pronouns and widely separated clauses.

  12. Paragraphs. The same rules apply. Keep them short. This not only makes the report look readable - compare the paragraph lengths in different newspapers - it acts as a discipline on you. A new idea, a change of direction in your thinking, the introduction of a fresh topic, all demand the start of a new paragraph. Only material relevant to your main statement in that paragraph should be included there.

  13. Punctuation. Punctuate for meaning. If you keep to short sentences you will not need more than commas and full stops, with the occasional question mark. You will find that the rest is common sense.

  14. Spelling. The secret anxiety felt by bad spellers is alarming. The idea that it bears any correlation with intelligence is, of course, nonsense. The remedy is simple. A small dictionary in desk or briefcase overcomes the problem, provided that you know where and when to look! The smallest dictionary contains more words than most of us ever use. Anyway, use simple words.

  15. Style. Do not try to recreate someone else's style but do on the other hand learn from others. Matthew Arnold said ''Have something to say and say it as clearly as you can. That is the secret of style''. With practice and following the principles of accuracy, brevity and clarity, you will develop your own style appropriate to your subject and the organisation.

ACTIVITIES

  1. Draft replies to manager's incoming correspondence.

  2. List regular reports which have to be produced by your department. Choose one and collect the information and plan the structure of the report.

  3. Write a report to record changes on an aspect about which you feel strongly in your organisation.

  4. Go through past reports. Re-write these by using clear, concise language.

  5. Study project and report writing from the Start-Up.

Exercises

Report writing - 1

Your manager has asked you to determine whether or not the office staff would welcome the introduction of canteen facilities. Most of the staff have indicated that they would, but only if the facilities were of a high standard.

Some of the staff would prefer luncheon vouchers.

Make your recommendation in a report to your manager.

READINGS

Managing your writing

C.Shields
Management World (USA), Winter 92 (20/1): p. 11 (1 pages)

Some sensible advice on how to manage effectively your writing by organizing and prioritising and making better use of your time. Suggests, for example, that you can write a memo while on the phone, waiting for a meeting to begin, on a bus or train; you should put your writing projects on a schedule; and you should delegate if possible.

WRITING, TIME MANAGEMENT
P/W Personnel and Training Abstracts
TX20

Strong words (effective written communication)

P.Lyons
Charter (Australia), Jun. 93 (64/5): p. 46 (2 pages)

Presents ten steps to better writing of memos and reports to ensure that your message gets across quickly and that the conclusions drawn are positive: among the less conventional tips are to depart from the traditional rules on grammar and punctuation (unless the recipient is a stickler for them) in order to make the report shorter and punchier; also suggests using active words to inspire the reader to act.

COMMUNICATIONS, WRITING
P Personnel and Training Abstracts
YA49-Practitioner

Session 5

NEGOTIATING SKILLS

OBJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

Negotiation is the art of bargaining used by two parties to reach an agreement on a particular matter acceptable to both. Negotiation relies on accurately identifying beforehand:

You are then in a position to meet the buyer without fear of conceding points for no reason. You will be able to reach a point of balance where the buyer is satisfied and you have achieved your objectives.

The nature of negotiation

For most buyers and sellers most of the time the need to buy and the need to sell are virtually equal. Therefore there should be less emphasis on selling and more on negotiation.

The objective in selling is to raise the customer's perceived need for the product or service to a level where, to satisfy that need, he makes the decision to buy. In selling the sales person does not move his position. He induces the buyer

to move towards his position by heightening the buyer's perception of his need for the product or service.

Successful sales technique is not negotiation, but it produces the basis for negotiation. Having heightened his perception of need the buyer now has to consider the purchase decision. He turns his attention to terms and conditions surrounding sale and purchase. He will now be seeking the best possible deal in a number of detailed areas:

Based therefore on the platform of a common need to buy and supply created by the sales process, negotiation is the give and take process whereby the final detailed terms and conditions surrounding the purchase/supply decision are agreed.

In this negotiation phase the supplier is tailoring the detail of the marketing mix (product, price, presentation) to fit the local, immediate needs of one particular customer. Because of this both the supplier and the purchaser are involved in controlled compromise.

A vital aspect of negotiation is the arithmetic, what the deal adds up to. The ability to understand the financial position of the buyer's company is essential, as is the ability to calculate the financial implications of any changes made to the package during the negotiation. A good sales negotiator must understand balance sheets, profit and loss accounts and cash flow forecasts.

Preparing for negotiation

  1. Have a total plan.
  2. Beware any overt or known contact with competition.
  3. The fewer the negotiators the quicker the agreement.
  4. Make small concessions on arrangements for the meeting.
  5. Always negotiate in your native language.
  6. Know the needs of the other side.
  7. Do not plan promises you are not convinced you can fulfil.
  8. Do not ask for promises the other side cannot meet
  9. Avoid long sessions - plan to break them up.
  10. Arrange to be able to leave the negotiation table and confer with your colleagues in private.
  11. See that your staff respect your privacy if the meeting is at your offices.
  12. Plan clearly what the next steps are after the meeting.

Factors to consider while negotiating

  1. Price.
  2. Currency in which bidder is willing to accept payment.
  3. Facilities for reciprocal trading.
  4. Ability to make offset arrangements.
  5. Credit terms which can be offered.
  6. Delivery, including reputation for keeping delivery promises.
  7. Risk of territory in which manufacture takes place being subject to industrial disputes.
  8. Conformity with mandatory specifications.
  9. Reliability of product.
  10. Quality of product.
  11. Ease of maintenance and level of running costs.
  12. Standardisation with purchaser's existing plant/system.
  13. Ability to comply with performance guarantees.
  14. Design and technical merit of product.
  15. Capability of plant/system for expansion to meet purchaser's future requirements.
  16. After-sales service.
  17. Availability and price of spares.
  18. Willingness to accept purchaser's commercial terms of contract.
  19. Reputation in commercial negotiations of being ''hard'' or ''soft''.
  20. Compliance with law and trading regulations.

Hints for negotiation

  1. Negotiate only with those in authority.
  2. Be prepared to trade.
  3. Be calm.
  4. Do not compromise your objectives.
  5. Do not oversell.
  6. Do not show your thoughts on your face.
  7. Do not underestimate your opponent.
  8. Always appear reasonable.
  9. Keep the meeting to your plan.
  10. Be courteous and do not rush the other side.
  11. When the mission is accomplished - leave.
  12. Do not drink - it influences your judgement and speed of thought.
  13. Tell it like it is and say clearly what you mean.
  14. Distinguish between major points and details.
  15. Appear relaxed and enjoy yourself.
  16. Listen carefully to all the other side says, and to the way they say it. Read any documents they give you.
  17. In multi-person negotiations, stay with your individual roles.
  18. If the agreement is not right for you, get up from the table.

ACTIVITIES

  1. Review negotiations to which you have been party over the past year. List the points which could have been improved upon.
  2. List the situations in which you will require negotiating skills in the near future. Prepare a plan for each.
  3. Practise for these situations by role playing with your colleagues.

READINGS

Assessing internal auditors' negotiation skills

R.Jeffords, M.Carter, A.Hixon
Internal Auditor (USA), Feb. 93 (50/1): p. 41 (4 pages)

Suggests ten negotiating strategies for internal auditors (but with wider application), including 'don't make all your demands up front', 'attack problems, not people' and 'focus on minor issues first'. Explains that these strategies were incorporated into a questionnaire sent out to internal auditors; identifies those strategies to which the respondents were most and least receptive, and finds that internal auditors are particularly sensitive to negotiating strategies affecting the human relations aspect of the auditor/auditee relationship. To your abstractor's mind, any good negotiator would be so.

NEGOTIATION, INTERNAL AUDIT
A/P Accounting and Finance Abstracts
XB58-Practitioner

Developing trust in negotiation - *

R. E.Fells
Employee Relations (UK), Vol. 15 No.1 93: p. 33 (13 pages)

Emphasizes the importance of trust between the parties in negotiation and workplace relations - noting that, although it is so highly valued, it is not clear exactly what trust is and how it can be brought about; explores situations calling for trust, both in negotiation and in the wider workplace context. Defines trust as a willingness to take unilateral action which might lead to exploitation, but which anticipates a non-exploitative response from the other party; in other words 'I trust you to co-operate and not exploit me'. Shows how this philosophy might apply in negotiation, and points to the incremental nature of trust-building; presents a basic three-phase model of negotiation to provide a context for the development of trust, identifies trust behaviours, and gives an example of establishing mutual trust. Theory X managers should read this; Theory Y managers should know it already.

NEGOTIATION, TRUST

T/P Top Management Abstracts
XA86-Practitioner

Talking tactics (negotiation)

K.Buchanan
Computing (UK), 20 Jan. 94: p. 30 (1 pages)

Acknowledges the importance for IT staff of developing negotiation skills, giving examples of situations where these are vital, particularly concerning maintenance agreements. Advocates that one should always aim for a `win-win' situation and outlines attitudes at Halifax Building Society and Thames Water. Ends by summarizing the key points to remember in negotiation.

IT DEPARTMENT, NEGOTIATION, SKILLS

P/I Personnel and Training Abstracts
ZF60-Practitioner

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Campbell J.," Speak for Yourself", BBC Books, Norwich 1990, ISBN 0563215119

Mandel S. "Effective Presentation Skills", Kogan Page, London, 1988, ISBN 1850915547

Evans D. W., "People, Communications and Organisations", Longman, London, 1986, ISBN 0273032690

Day A. (Ed.), "Effective Communications", MCB University Press, Bradford, 1987, ISBN 0861762959

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